AX 


i  rip 


'i'THlTirP       I  Vn    riAVOTHI! 


,    ILH 


\ 


GRAMMAR, 


OF  THE 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE, 

Accompanied  by  Several  Original  Diagrams,  Exhibiting  an  Occular  Illustration! 
of  some  of  the  Most  Difficult  Principles  of  the  Science  of  Lan- 
guage; also,  an  Extensivo  Glossary  of  the  Deriva-  I 
I                                    tion  of  the  Principal  Scientific  Terms  | 

Used  in  this  Work. 
i  ' 

!  IN   TWO  PARTS,  I 


FOR  THh:  USE  OF  EVFJIiY  OXF  WHO  MAY  W/slI  TO  ADOPT  If 


r.Y 


REV.  PROF.  BRANTLY  YORK. 


THIRD   EDITION 


Mll/rUM  IX  I'AHVO. 


"That's  vil(>.  ;  sluuiKl  wo  a  parents  fault  adore, 
Aud  eiT  because  our  lather's  erred  before?" 


RALi:n;u  : 
W.  L.   POM K HOY 
1  S(V_». 


DUKE 

UNIVERSITY 

LIBRARY 


Treasure  "Room 


...^     .  AN 

g^nabtical,  lllnstratibt,  anb  (JLonstrttctih 
GRi^MMA-R 

OF 

THE   ENG,LISH  LANGUAGE 

ACCOMPANIED  BT  SEVERAL   ORIGINAL  DIAGRAMS,  EXHIBITING  AN  OCCU- 
LAR  ILLUSTRATION  OF  SOME  OF  THE  MOST  DIFFICULT  PRINCIPLES 
OP  THE  SCIENCE  OF  LANGUAGE  ;  ALSO,  AN  EXTENSIVE  GLOS- 
SARY OP  THE  DERIVATION  OP  THE  PRINCIPAL  SCIEN- 
TIFIC  TERMS   USED    IN    THIS   WOPvK, 

IN    TWO    PARTS, 

FOR  THE  USE  OF  EVERY  ONE  WHO  MAY  WISH  TO  ADOPT  IT, 

BY 

REV.    PROF.   BRANTLEY    YORK. 

THIRD  EDITION. 


MULTUM   IN   PARVO. 


That's  Tile  ;  should  we  a  parent's  fault  adore, 
And  err  because  our  father's  erred  before  f " 


RALEIGH  : 

W    L.  POMEROY.   PUBLISHER 

1862. 


[Copy  Right  secured  in  the  C.  S.  District  Court  of  Pamlico.] 


A.,  al.  GORMAN,  PRi"STS«' 


Y 1 1-? 


TO 


^[iDse  tnlia  [lauc  hern  itiiiirr  mij  3ni5triutinn 

WITHIN  THf:  LAST  TWENTY  YEARS. 


eOME    or    WUOM     ARE    FlI.Ll.NG 


IMPORTANT    STATIONS    IN    T  H  i:    CHURC 

AND  TUr 

VARIOUS   DEPARTMENTS  OF   INSTRUCT'ON, 

This  Work  is   Most   Rc^pcclfulJy   Ded  cutcd 

BY   THE   AUTHOR. 


33i»4-4.8 


TESTIMONIALS. 


Frnm  Pi's.  Morris  (^  Wood, 

The  undersigned  having  been  solicited  by  the  Rev.  B.  York  to  Micni 
the  examination  of  the  pupils  of  his  lecturing  school,  held  at  Midway 
Chapel,  feel  no  hesitation  ia  saying,  that  the  proficiency  made  by  liis  .stu- 
dents so  far  exceeded  our  most  sanguine  expectation  that  we  are  fully  pre-  • 
pared  to  testify,  that  th«  progress  made  during  the  eleven  days'  course  '"f 
lectures,  particularly  in  English  Granamar,  was  equal  to  what  is  gcneraliv 
made  in  a  regular  five  months'  session  by  the  conimon  mode  of  ttacliiii).. 
Ani  as  we  are  fully  convinced  that  there  is  no  other  system  of  instructiuu 
in  existence  so  well  adapted  to  the  vt'ants  of  the  cotnnmnity  generally,  and 
which  affords  such  facilities  to  all  classes  of  people  for  the  acquirement  ol  a 
scientific  education  :  We,  therefore,  take  great  pleasure  in  nicommendu!!; 
its  speedy  adoption  in  every  neighborhood  and  village ;  and  we,  moreover, 
thmk  it  due  to  the  Rev.  B.  York  to  recommend  him  to  the  patronage  of  all 
to  whom  he  may  offer  his  services.  DANIEL  V.  M<>RRI>, 

Midway,  Angust,\Ub.  ROBERT  WOOD. 

From  several  Gentlewvi  who  utiended  the  Lectures  at  Mnier's  Ch7pd,   Gailjord 

County f  N.  C.,  November  2,  1&46. 
Rev.  B.  York — 

DeakSiu:  We  had  the  pleasure  of  hearing  your  lectures  on  Eng'd.-h 
Grammar  and  the  other  sciences,  which  yon  taught  at  this  place;  and  w« 
are  prepared  to  render  our  unqualiBed  approbation  of  your  system  of  iui- 
parting  scientific  instruction  to  youtk  and  adults.  The  engaging  niar.ner 
in  which  you  explained  the  elements  of  Grammar,  asd  accommodated  thtm 
to  the  capacities  of  your  students,  is  an  ample  illustration  of  the  utility  of 
\o\xv  planof  tca--hiiiij.  Strict  justice,  therefore,  constrains  us  to  acknowl- 
edge that  the  rapid  progress  of  those  under  ysur  tuition  has  far  surpa.>-sed 
our  most  sanguine  hope.  And  though  no  science  but  (irafhmar  wa«  taught 
to  any  considerable  extent,  we  are  confident,  that  your  plan  of  teaching  by 
lecture  and  illustration  on  the  black-board  is  more  efficient  in  conveying 
knowledge  of  any  of  the  sciences  than  any  that  has  ever  been  dcveloind. 

We  think  that  we  cannot  too  strongly  recommend  your  mode  of  teii<  lung 
Elocution,  to  those  who  desire  a  correct  knowledge  of  that  important  and 
interesting  science,  and  th«sc  who  aspire  to  distinction  in  public  declamn- 
tion.  We  believe  your  students  who  applied  themselves  attentively  el)- 
tained  a  better  knowledge  of  Grammar  and  Elocution,  in  the  eleven  <.\-*y)i 
that»you  taught,  than  is  obtained  by  the  usual  mode  of  teaching  in  t^lv« 
months. 

Considering  the  low  prices  of  tuition  and  the  facilities  for  learnini;,  wo 
feel  fully  warranted  in  cheerfully  recommending  your  plan  of  teaching  to 
an  intelligent  public.  '    Your  obedient  servants, 

W.  E.  EDWARDS,  D.  M.  OSBDRNT. 

S.  W.  WESTBROOK,  THOMAS  M.  WOODBURX, 

A.  DILWORTH. 


33i>4.4-3 


Vi  ^  lESTlMOSlALS. 

From  the  Palmetto  Standard,  Chester,  S.  C,  September  19,  1852. 
GRAMMAR  CLASS. 

We  were,  by  inviUition,  present  on  Wednesday  last  at  the  examination 
of  a  Grammar  Class  taught  by  the  Rev.  B.  York,  of  N.  C,  at  Armenia 
Church,  in  this  District.  We  found  that  the  pupils  had  been  very  thor- 
oughly instructed,  having  made  a  greater  proficiency  than  we  supposed 
could  possibly  be  made  in  so  short  a  time.  The  course  of  instruction  com- 
prised but  twenty  lectures,  and  most  of  the  students,  as  we  learned,  had 
given  no  previous  attentitn  to  the  study  of  English  Grammar,  yet  they 
stood  an  examination  w-hich  was  honorable  to  themselves,  and  highly  so  t» 
the  zeal  and  competency  of  their  instructor.  We  are  satisfied  that  the  pH- 
pils  had  acquired  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  English  Grammar,  in 
the  twenty  lessons,  than  is  generally  obtained  in  as  many  months  on  the 
older  modes  of  instruction. 

Before  parsing  a  sentence,  Mr.  York  gives  his  pupils  an  understanding 
of  the  sentence  to  be  parsed,  by  illustrations  on  the  black-board,  as  we 
learned,  principally  of  his  own  devising,  showing  the  various  relations, 
connections  and  dependencies  of._the  several  parts  of  the  sentences  to  each 
other.  Though  the  process  by  which  this  was  done  is  somewhat  mechan- 
ical, yet  it  is  most  admirably  adapted  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  end  in 

From  the  TorJcville  (S.  C. )  Miscellanv. 
Incompliance  with  an  invitation  from  Rev.  B.  York  and  his  class,  the 
undersigned  were  prosent  last  evening  at  the  examination  on  English 
Grammar  and  Elocution,  and  feel  themselves  called  upon,  as  a  Committee, 
to  express  their  views  in  reference  to  the  same.  With  regard  to  Mr.  Y  's 
system  of  instruction,  we  are  not  prepared  to  say  a  great  deal,  inasmuch  as 
our  acquaintance  with  it  is  predicated  upon  merely  what  we  saw  and  heard 
last  night.  We  cannot,  however,  hesitate  to  express  our  admiration  of  it, 
as  one  batter  calculated  to  simplify  the  study  of  Grammar  and  afford  in  a 
short  time  a  knowledge  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Language  than  any  other 
with  which  we  are  acquainted. 

Mr.  York  requires  the  student,  before  he  enters  upon  the  parsing  of  a 
sentence,  to  ascertain,  by  systematic  analysis  and  synthesis,  the  true 
7iieaning  of  it,  so  that  he  may  have  in  his  mind  the  leading  ideas  of  the 
sentence,  and  be  enabled  more  easily  and  accurately  to  parse  it.  Of  this 
plan  we  cannot  but  approve,  inasmuch  as,  opposing  the  old  mechanical 
procedure  in  parsing,  and  eliciting  at  once  the  attention,  it  cannot  but  im- 
prove the  understanding  and  cultivate  the  memory.  Mr,  Y.'s  plan  of 
^  teaching  by  lecture  and  illustration  is  calculated  to  impart  to  his  pupils  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  science  of  Grammar. 

In  regard  to  the  proficiency  of  the  pupils  who  were  examined^belore  us, 
we  would  merely  say,  they  had  received  twenty  lectures  in  about  fifty 
hours,  and  the  most  of  them  at  night.  In  that  length  of  time  they  could 
not  so  praiseworthily  have  acquitted  themselves  had  not  this  mode  of  in- 
struction been  superior  to  the  old  ones.  Many  of  them,  we  learned,  had 
never  studied  Grammar,  who  went  through  the  exercises  in  parsing  with 
considerable  facility.  Indeed,  all  who  were  examined  acquitted  themselves 
with  credit,  considering  the  short  time  in  which  they  received  instruction, 
and  the  irregularity  of  i heir  attention  to  it. 

We  were  pleapf  d  with  the  exereises  in  Elocution,  although  Mr.  York,  in 
consequence  of  the  lateness  of  the  hour,  did  not  explain  tbe  principles 
noon  which  he  teaches  the  science.     It         -"»re,  however,  that  his  students 


TESTIMONIALS.  VU 

are  drilled  in  the  use  of  voice  and  gesture,  so  that  they  may  bo  thorough- 
ly developed.     This  practical  mode  of  teaching  Elocution  is  the  best,  and  ♦ 
the  success  attending  its  application  of  the  principles  has  fully  established 
its  value.  W.  C.  BEATTY,  THOS.  D.  OORT, 

W.  J.  B()\VEN,  JOHN  G.  ENLOK, 

Yorkville,  S.  C,  December  1,  1852.  KLIAS  J.  MEYNARDIE. 

From,  the  Yorhoille  (S.  C.)  Remedy. 
NEW  GRAMMAR. 

We  are  placed  in  possession  of  a  small  book  entitled,  "  An  Illustrative 
and  Constructive  Grammar,"  by  the  Rev.  Brantley  York,  of  York  Collegi- 
ate Institute,  Alexander  County,  N.  C.  It  appears  that  Mr.  Y.  has  had 
long  experience  in  teaching  Grammar,  by  diagrams  tn  a  blackboard,  giv- 
ing the  itudent  a  correct  knowledge  of  Grammar  in  twenty  lessoris.  This 
book  is  gotten  up  on  the  same  jtlan,  and  as  far  as  we  have  had  time  to  ex- 
amine it,  we  are  altogether  pleased  with  it,  ani  have  no  «loubtthat  it  pos- 
sesses all  the  advantages  claimed  for  it  by  the  author.  This  is  a  study 
which  is  too  mach  neglected,  notwithstanding  its  vast  and  paramount  im- 
portance. We  would  recomme«d  this  work  to  the  examination  of  teachers 
and  parents  generally,  feeling  confident  that  it  will  accomplish  all  its  pur- 
poses. 

From  the  Carolina  Watchman^  Salisbury,  iV.  C, 

PROF.  YORK'S  GRAMMAR. 

This  new  and  valuable  work  is  now  nearly  ready  for  tho  market.  It  will 
be  out  in  a  few  days. 

This  work  is  the  result  «f  some  fifteen  years  of  patient  and  laborious 
stud3%  during  m«st  of  which  time  the  author  has  bean  teaching  and  lectur- 
ing on  Grammar,  and  improving  the  system.  Tho  iUristratlve  f«ature  is 
new,  happily  answering  the  purpose  of  the  author  in  greatly  facilitating  the 
learner  in  the  acquisition  of  a  correct  knowledge  of  language.  A  few  new 
terms  have  bc«n  introduced,  which  may  at  first  strike  the  minds  of  those 
who  are  wedded  to  "old  things"  with  little  favor.  But  a  more  thorough 
examination  into*thesc  will  serve  to  commend  the  work  to  their  earnest 
attention.  The  Glonsary  of  terras,  whidh  alo«e  is  worth  the  price  of  the 
volume,  comprehending  as  it  does  all  that  are  used  in  works  of  this  kind, 
will  explain  what  is  now  and  show  their  appropriateness,  and  remove  many 
a  difficulty  in  respect  to  those  long  in  use.  Those  who  have  had  an  oppor- 
tunity of  attending  the  lectures  of  P-of.  Y^ork  need  no  assurance  that  this 
is  truly  a  scientific  work.  Wc  have  had  many  anxious  inquiries  from  such 
when  the  book  would  be  ready  for  circulation,  and  we  suppose  no  batter 
evidence  of  the  value  of  the  system  could  at  present  be  olfjrod.  Wiierever 
it  has  been  taught  the  results  have  astonished  believers  in  other  plans. 

From  the  Carolina  InteUigencr.r^  Slielby^  K  O. 

PROF.  YORK'S  GRAMMAR. 

We  have  been  presented  with  a  copy  of  Prof  York's  new  editioi  of  the 
English  Grammar.  It  is  the  best  illustrative  and  constructive  work  of  the 
kind  we  have  seen.  He  has  been  engaged  for  many  years  teaching  gram- 
mar; and  wherever  he  ha^^  taught  \\%^  given  general  satisfaction  This 
work  is  taking  tho  place  of  all  others  wiierever  it  has  circulated.  This 
work  ciu  be  purchased  at  the  store  of  Roberts  &.  Fullenwider  iu  tbii  place. 


till  TESTIMONIALS. 

trom  the  Spirit  of  the  Age,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

A  REVIEW  BY  REV.  A.  W.  MANGUM,  A.  B. 

Mr.  Editor:  I  wish  to  call  the  attention  of  your  readers,  particularly 
those  who  are  Teachers  or  Students,  to  a  matter  which  will  prove  benefi- 
cial to  tliein  and  to  the  cause  of  Education. 

I  have,  by  invitation,  recently  attended  Lectures  on  English  Grammar 
by  Rev.  Prof.  Brantley  York,  President  of  York  Collegiate  Institute,  and 
have  carefully  perused  the  Grammar  of  which  he  is  the  author.  The  sys- 
tem of  teaching  which  he  has  invented  deserves  the  attention  of  all  teach- 
ers. It  enables  those  who  diligently  apply  themselves  to  acquire  a  good 
knowledge  of  Grammar  in  four  or  fit.e  weehs,  while,  as  every  one  knows, 
the  usual  methods  require  at  least  four  or  five  months.  A  leading  excel- 
lence of  his  method  consists  in  the  fact  that  he  uses  the  black-board,  thus 
making  the  eye  as  well  as  the  ear  a  medium  of  instruction.  This  is  a  de- 
cided superiority  over  the  common  methods;  for,  as  the  author  says  in  his 
preface,  "intellectual  improvement  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  senses  ex- 
ercised." He  has  devised  ingenious  diagrams  which,  while  they  interest 
the  eye,  explain  the  science  of  Grammar  and  impress  its  principles  deeply 
upon  the  mind.  Many  able  scholars  in  both  North  and  South  Carolina 
have  extolled  his  method,  being  convinced  of  its  excellence  by  its  fruits. 

But  it  is  his  Grammar  which  I  wish  especially  to  recommend.  Those 
who  are  acquainted  with  the  various  Grammars  of  our  language  will  readi- 
ly  admit  that  all  the  pretended  new  ones,  published  for  the  last  fifty  years, 
have  been  little  more  than  copies  of  the  ideas  of  those  before  them,  with  a 
change  in  expression  or  words  and  arrangement.  I  can  safely  say  that 
Prof.  York's  is  a  ntw  Grammar.  It  contains  originality,  and  that  origia- 
ality  is  unquestionably  im2}rovemen.t. 

All  who  have  taught  or  studied  English  Grammar  are  aware  that  gener- 
ally the  memory  is  the  chief,  and  often  the  only  faculty  of  the  mind  exer- 
cised by  the  learner;  but  Prof.  York's  requires  especially  the  exercise  of 
reason,  and  thus  enables  the  student  to  incorporate  its  rules  and  principles 
into  his  habits  of  thinking,  speaking  and  writing.  Unlike  others,  he  care- 
fully gives  reasons  for  his  rules  and  principles.  He  has  made  it  a  grand 
object  to  teach  the  language  with  the  Grammar,  thus  again  outstripping 
(jthers. 

He  has  given  plain,  pointed  and  comprehensive  rules  for  punctuation. — 
Every  one  knows  the  difiBculty  of  learning  to  punctuate  correctly,  and  also 
how  inefldcient  the  rules  of  most  authors  on  punctuation  are.  Prof.  York's 
rules  are  easily  understood  and  truly  practical.  A  glossary  of  all  the 
technical  terms  used  is  annexed  to  the  volume ;  a  great  advantage  to  the 
student,  as  he  seldom  knows  anything  about  Latin  or  Greek, 

In  fine,  the  author  detects  and  exposes  the  imperfections  of  others;  ex- 
plodes time-honored  errors  ;  establishes  new  truths  ;  discovers  new  princi- 
ples ;  and  produces  positive  and  valuable  improvements  in  many  respects. 
Several  distinguished  teachers  in  high  schools  in  North  Carolina  have 
adopted  his  Grammar  as  a  text  book.  If  it  be  an  improvement  on  other 
similar  works,  suiely  •thers  should  be  discarded  and  it  adopted. 

The  author  is  a  North  Carolinian,  and  if  his  b«ok  possesses  real  merit, 
North  Carolinians  ought  to  encourage  his  talent  and  give  him  their  pat- 
ronage. 


P KEF AGE 


As  the  senses  are  the  channels  through  which  knowledge  is  conTtyed  to 
the  mind,  or  the  mediums  through  which  the  external  world  holds  inter- 
course with  the  intellective  principle,  it  must  necessarily  follow  that  the  in* 
tellectual  improTement  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  senses  ex- 
ercised. One  who  sees,  feels,  and  hears  an  object,  must,  in  the  nature  of 
things,  have  a  clearer  idea  of  it  than  he  who  sees  or  hears  it  only ;  hence 
the  importance,  in  the  acquisition  of  any  science  or  art,  of  addressing  all 
the  senses  which  are  capable  of  being  addressed.  Nor  is  this  all :  the 
senses  are  not  only  the  mediums  through  which  knowledge  is  communica- 
ted to  the  mind,  but  they  are  also  the  channels  through  which  the  silvery 
streams  of  pleasure  flow  to  the  heart. 

Nor  is  the  association  of  innocent  pleasures  a  matter  of  so  small  impor- 
tance that  it  should  be  overlooked  by  Educators ;  for  our  efforts  at  in- 
struction must,  in  a  great  measure,  be  fruitless  so  long  as  the  pupils  feel 
no  pleasure  in  study.  The  truth  is,  we  may  as  well  attempt  t»  make  two 
bodies  occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time,  as  to  force  instruction  on 
unwilling  or  indifferent  minds.  The  thirst  must  be  incited  before  the  re- 
freshing draught  will  be  relished  or  gought.  Guided  by  the  light  of  this 
philosophy,  the  Author  has,  for  several  years,  endeavored  by  appropriate 
and  instructive  diagrams,  to  interest  the  eye  by  seeing,  as  well  as  the  ear 
by  hearing.  How  far  he  has  been  successful  in  bis  arduous  efforts  to  com- 
municate a  knowledge  of  the  constructive  principles  of  the  English  Lan^ 
guage,  the  hundreds  of  pupils  to  whom  he  has  lectured  during  the  last 
twelve  years,  will  readily  testify. 

No  apology  is  offered  for  thfe  publication  of  this  work,  but  that  the  Au- 
thor believes  it  will  be  useful  to  his  classes,  and,  perhaps,  to  all  who  think 
proper  to  study  it. 

The  originality  claimed  for  this  work  is  the  plan  of  teaching.  But  the 
Author,  however,  acknowledges  with  pleasure,  that  he  has  received  val- 
uable aid  from  Dr.  "Webster's  Improved  Grammar,  American  Syntithology, 
by  James  Brown,  Gicenc's  Analysis  of  the  English  Language,  Dr.  Bullions, 
and  others. 

Notwithstanding  the  many  disadvantages  under  which  the  Author  la- 
bored during  the  preparation  of  this  little  work,  such  as  defective  vision 
and  the  want  of  time,  he  asks  not  to  be  shielded  from  the  ordeal  of  Vme 
criticism. 

With  these  few  prefatory  remarks,  this  little  wogf  is  repectfully  gub- 
mitted  to  an  enlightened  public. 

THF    ATTHOR 


PREFACE 

TO    THE    REVISED    EDITION. 

In  consequence  of  the  delicate  health  of  the  Author,  and  the  want  of 
means,  the  publication  of  this  edition  has  been  delayed  since  the  flisttwo 
editions  were  out  But  the  constantly  increasing  sale  of  those  editions, 
and  the  frequent  and  repeated  calls  for  the  work  since  they  were  exhaust- 
ed, have  encouraged  the  author  to  attempt  the  publication  of  a  revised 
and  enlarged  edition. 

No  pains  have  been  spared  to  clear  this  M'ork  from  error,  and  to  make  it 
not  only  a  suitable  text-book  for  schools  and  colleges,  but  also  for  private 
learners  and  family  instruction. 

It  combines  all  the  advantages  growing  out  of  a  thorough  Analytical  and 
Synthetical  process.  This  is  believed  to  be  important;  since  no  sentence 
can  be  correctly  parsed  unless  it  is  first  understood. 

A  few  terms  have  been  introduced  which  hahrenotas  yet  found  their  way 
into  our  Dictionaries ;  these  are  principally  selected  from  the  American 
S\  ntithology,  by  James  Brown  of  Philadelphia.  For  their  explanations, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  author's  glossary  of  scientific  terms.  The 
■eccssity  of  these  terms  arises  from  the  peculiar  mode  of  analyzing  and 
construing,  used  in  this  work.  * 

3fonolo(fy,  for  instance,  is  a  convenient  and  comprehensive  term,  used  to 
designate  that  kind  of  analysis  which  separates  the  sentence  into  clauses 
and  phrases,  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  a  regular  and  thorough  con- 
struction of  sentences.  As  to  the  utility  and  importance  of  drilling  pu- 
pils in  the  constructive  principles  of  language,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  differ- 
ence of  opinion  ;  but  much  of  this  utility  is  frequently  lost  for  the  want  of 
an  appropriate  Nomenclature.  For  such  a  Nomenclature,  we  are  chiefly 
indebted  to  Mr.  James  Brown,  already  mentioned. 

The  term  mono,  used  by  Mr.  Brown  to  designate  an  elcnjent  of  a  sentence, 
whether  clause  or  phrase,  is  not  absolutely  necessary ;  since  the  term 
memher  will  do  as  well;  and,  as  ft  is  purely  English,  many,  perhaps,  would 
prefer  it. 

The  term  noeton  is  used  to  point  out  any  element  of  a  sentence,  per- 
eeircd  by  the  mind  only,  and  not  by  the  senses,  but  which  is  necessary  in 
order  to  its  correct  analysis  and  construction.  Understood  is  the  term  in 
common  use,  but  as  it  is  ambiguous,  the  former  is  preferable.  Those,  how- 
ever, who  prefer  the  latter,  have  our  consent. 


IPJtlEJPACE,  \\ 

0 

Monodone  is  the  namo  given  by  J.  Brown  to  such  words  as  give  mem- 
^aers;  hence  member-givcr  may  be  substituted, ia  its  stead  by  those  who 
(prefer  it.  • 

Sulfirmathe  is  applied  to  such  sentences  as  express  a  less  degree  of  ver- 
'oal  force  than  afErmative  ones,  henco  it  is  more  comprehensive  than  ilypo-v 
thetical  or  Conditional. 

Dendrology  is  employed  in  an  accommodated  sense,  somewhat  diffejf-nt 
from  its  primary  one  ;  and  yet,  in  some  measure  analagoua  to  it.  By  the 
I>6:iidTology  of  a  soHtence,  is  meant  the  various  relations  which  the  subor* 
dinate  members  bear  to  the  leading  clause,  as  illustrated  by  the  frame 
work  of  a  tree.  As  all  the  branches  of  a  tree  are  connected  with,  and  de- 
pend upon  the  trunk  either  directly  or  indirectly,  so  all  the  subordinate 
Kierabers  arc  connected  with  the  leading  clause,  and  depend  upon  it.  The 
nearness  or  remoteness  of  this  connection  is  pointed  out  by  the  rank  of 
members.     (See  Dfendrology  of  Sentences.) 

jS'«&  and  jSaper  arc  not  introduced  as  standing  techmcalities,  but  are 
■either  joined  to  the  word  member -,  as,  «u5-member  and  .in^^cr-mcmbcr,  to 
express  their  constructiverelation  to  eRch  other,  or  as  substitutes;  ^ntv.he 
for  eM^-members  and  stpen  for  «t<«?er-meiabcrs„ 

The  almost  unparalleled  success  which  has  crewr.ed  the  eE'orts  oif  alfi 
who  have  adopted*  this  mode  of  teaching,  abyudantly  proves  its  cffi.cf.e'.?.cy ; 
but,  if  any  prefer  the  ordinary  way  cf  teaching,  they  will  Giid  a  complete 
"Grammar  in  the  sacond  part,  with  ample  models  ar>r?  evr.rcV'-s  Wt):  r<>r 
{larsing  and  correcting. 

No  changes  have  been  made  ir.  the  con^moR  r.GnicK.cla.Curc  o^  g'l't.tiiv.s.*!^- 
•cal  terms,  ey.cept  in  sech  as  dc  net  adiait  cf  eyplanatieii  as  s.{>pJ.icd  tji  graias.*- 
fiiar.  We  dt  net  supposa  hevrever,  that  the  acHE.e  ef  excelicn-ce  feas  feeem 
B"each'ed,  or  that  more  appropriate  terms  raight  net  be  cciflioycd-;  fcut,  »s 
there  is  scarcely  any  probability  that  tke  RQffi.ep.clatEirc  cf  tb©  gratwitsars  <rf' 
other  languages  v/ill  change,  we  deeo?'.  it  iaexpe^ieet  toi  Bciakei  «xt«Rsi>-<'  ca- 
•nuvatiens  wpcn  oKr  own. 

It  has  been  eur  uniieviatiRg  aiua  t©  make  tke  dcErattens  as(£  rtclf s  ■^l  (th« 
■art,  harmonize  with  the  jiripxiples  ef  the  Ecicrxc  e€  f8.Rgs*g-6>  fe:  (J'T^ng 
"this,  several  uniiRpertaRt  distiRGtieRS  and  useless  tt-vwtt  kar*  ^- ores;'! city 
•been  rtiiected.-  such,  for  ip.staEcc,  as  ac^'ectire  rrca(H!.rt^  fxccenrinsu'.  sdjycfc"*?^ 
•compound  relative  proROUE,  f'tidcEritc  «.(^ectr>6  ;5«;rcr«c«tK,  "it^" itnC/tivc  ■.««■>. 
Junction,  etc.  The  same  word  naar-  be  essed  ictcTckattgCRfelf  *£  aa  ■s.dj'«o!i'?<e 
aad  a  preneun,  but  no  wcrd  ever  participft-'ics  m  tfec  pocpfrrtecs  <£  tci/r.  t.t 
the  samo  time  ;  then  sech  a  thitg  «.s  ks  ctijective  wr-'yiio^tei;  'ices  rL-ij^^nA 

can  r.ot  sxist 

* 

As  cectitiE.  forms  <sf  ike  vetb  ^cictocittia.  ■ --;»^»-«n:t'^ 

jfpast,  cr  fitture,  to  suck  vre  h.iv«  «.pp.li«<i  ttt  ;  r.t  i„  «tk 

^hi»-  ttnise  «f  jth€  e?ei»t  ir^ic«te*  fey  s«*cli  ir«*^.8^  vmxxt  ^fpHt  ^fwr^l^y  <t*  lof-^/aw^ 


lii  PREFACE. 

« 

the  digcriminating  learner  may  apply  a  tense  corresponding  with  the  time 
of  the  event. 

Authors  are  not  always  suflBciently  accurate  in  discriminating  between 
the  time  of  the  speaker  and  that  of  the  event ;  hence  it  is  generally  said 
that  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  is  in  the  present  tense,  because  it  is 
impossible  to  command  either  in  the  pastor  future  time.  This  may  be  so; 
but  the  tense  ef  the  verb  is  not  to  be  determined  by  the  time  of  the  speak- 
er, but  by  the  time  of  the  event;  and,  if  the  event  were  really  occurring 
at  the  time  of  the  command,  it  would  supersede  the  necessity  for  it ;  but, 
since  the  event  or  act  must  necessarily  take  place  subsequently  to  the 
command,  the  time  must  be  future  ;  consequently  the  tense,  strictly  speak- 
ing, is  also  future,  though  it  is  generally  called  present 

As  the  principal  authors  consulted  in  this  work  have  already  been  men- 
tioned, we  deem  it  unnecessary  to  refer  to  them  here. 

Grateful  for  the  favorable  manner  with  which  the  first  editions  have  been 
received,  the  author  hopes,  in  this,  to  present  a  work  to  the  discriminating 
public  more  worthy  of  favor  and  patronage. 

Yoke  Cou.egiate  Institute,  N.  C,  Oct.,  1862. 


CONTENTS. 


PART    I, 


CHAPTER  I. 

] 

1 1.  Sentencet, 

2.  Simple,  Compound  and  Complex, 
i  3.  Simple  Seutence, 

4.  Compound  Sentence, 

5.  Complex  Sentence, 

CHAPTER  n. 

1.  Kind!  of  Sentence!, 

5.  Affirmfttire  Sentences, 
8.  Subfirmative  Sentences, 
4.  Exclamative  Sentences, 

6.  Interrogative  Sentence!, 

6.  Imperative  Sentences, 

7.  Petitionary  Sentences, 

CHAPTBR    m. 


%  1.  Construction  of  Affirmative  and  Sab* 

flnnative  Sentences,  26 

§  2.  Intarrogatire  Sentences,  36 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


21'§  1.  Construction  of  Sentences. 

21  g  3.  ©rdcrs,  Trunk  and  Branch. 

81  fe  3.  Noution— Plenary  and  Implenarr 

21  S  4.  Integrity— Perfect  and  Imperfect. 

21  §  5.  Rank  of  Members, 

i  6.  Position— Juxta,  Disjuxta,  and  Biaal   »T 
i  7.  Snper,  Sub,  33 


CHAPTER   IV. 

1.  Elements  of  Sentencci, 
i  2.  Substantive  Elements, 
3.  Verbal  Elementt, 
t  4.  Adjective  Elements, 
6.  Adverbial  Elements, 
6.  Connective  Elements, 
I  7.  Elements— Principal  and  Sabonll- 

nate, 
S  8.  Subject, 
I  ».  Predicate, 

CHAPTER  V. 

Aoalygis  of  a  Sentence, 

CHAPTER  VI 

€  1.  CoE8t:Tict!on  of  EI«!a$nt«. 
1 2.  Adjective  Elesients, 
I S.  Adverbial  Elemento, 
$  4.  Abrid£em«Bt  of  Slesiente, 

CHAPTER  VII. 

51  AnaJysia  of  3cnteace»  into  Cla«ee» 
tnd  IkraB«B, 


71«B 

•7 
«7 
87 
37 
87 


CHAPTER  IX. 
§  1.  Alligation, 

CHAPTER  X. 
§  1.  Systematic  Order  of  ParsiDf 

CHAPTER  XI. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


27!  General  Remarks, 
27 

CHAPTER 


30 


xin. 


Prvmiscnous  Exercises, 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

S  1.  Idea, 

§  2.  Proposition, 

S  3.  Predicai*, 

S  4.  Copula, 

^  6.  Subject, 

^  6.  Categorical  Propositions, 

g  7.  Affirmative  and  Negative  Propo- 
sitions, 

I «.  UniverssJ  end  Pa:ticti!«r  Frono- 
6it!o=s. 

\  9.  Terms  of  a  Proposition. 

J 10.  Convsreion  of  Propos:rio::s, 

i  11.  Opposition  of  Propo8itl»nB, 


CHAPTER  XV. 
j8 1.  Reasoning, 

II 3.  Syllo|;istlc  Reasoning,  Rales,  ct". 
mb.  Soriteji, 


40 


§  1.  Directions  for  rendering  scntenctt 
Plenary,  ^j 


6S 


54 


67 
67 
57 
6T 
57 
«7 

»7 

6T 
66 
68 

68 


60 
69 
6» 


PART   II. 


CHAPTER    1. 

1 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

page! 

PAOK 

1 1.  Language 

65  i 

i 

General  Uomarks  on  the  Verb 

,,  103 

CHAPTER  II. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

§1.  Grammar 

1  2.  Tonics  or  Vowel.9, 

65 

67' 

Partic:ples 

104 

1  3.  D?phthongB, 
1  4.  Triphthongs, 

67j 

CHAPTER  XV. 

1  5.  Sub-tonics  or  Sub-Toweli, 

681 

1 6.  Atonies, 

t)9 

Pronouns   or  Substitutes 

106. 

1  7.  Letters, 

'.l 

,      CHAPTER  XVI. 

CHAPTER    IlL 

Relative  Pronouns 

109 

§  1.  English  Grammar, 

72 

1 3.  F*Dr  Parts, 

73 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Article 

111 

§  1.  Rules  f«r  Spellikg, 

73 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

CHAPTER  V. 

Adjectives 

112 

§  1.  Etymology, 

75 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

^  2.  NVords, 

^  8.  Division  of  Word*, 

75 

75 

Specifying  Adjectives 

114 

(;  4.  Deelinable  and  IndecUuablt, 

76 

§  5.  Parts  of  Speech, 

76 

CHAPTER  XX. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Adverbs,  or  Modifiers 

11» 

§  1.  ClaBsiflcatien  of  Words— Primary 

CHAPTER  XXI, 

and  ^econd.'try. 

7^i 

§  2.  Secondary  Words, 

76 

Prepositions 

117 

List  of  lYepositious 

117 

CHAPTER  Vir. 

§  1.  Nouns, 

77 

CHAPTER  XXIL 

§3.  Accidents, 
§  3.  Gender, 

77 
77 

ConjuncUons 

119 

§  4.  Person, 

78 

§  5.  Number, 

78 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

§  6.  Case, 

7S 

Inteijections  or  Exclamations 

120 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

' 

V 

§  1.  Verb?, 

73 

•CHAPTER  XXrV. 

1  2.  Modes, 

bO 

$  3.  Ten?e, 

81 

Peculiar  Constructions,   Idioms, 

and 

i.  Person  and  Number— Remarks. 

b3 

Intricacies 

121 

CHAPTER   IX. 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

g  1.  Cociujation  of  the  Verb, 
•t.  Reg'ular  Verbs, 
«.  Tha  Passive  Voice, 

CHAPTER  X. 

Auxiliary  Vsrbt. 

OEAPTEE    XI. 
§  1.  Formation  of  the  Tenses, 

CHAPTER  Zll 

^  1.  Irregular  Vertf . 
List  of  Vi>rb». 


126 


onlSolutionof  Difficult  Sentences,  promis- 
,,•[  I  cuously  arranged 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
JThc  Grammatical  Language  of  the  Bible  13-3 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

.§1.  Syntax,  125 

I    2.  Govemme:it,  Conccr.'t,  and   Agree- 
5'  meet,  185 

Rules  of  Syntax,  with  Notes  and  Re- 
1  marks,  186 


96 


»1 


CHAPTFP.  yxvm. 


^<^'F»i««  Byutnx. 


147 


.ni.N'l  J.  M:-. 


XV 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
MiBcellaneons  Hemarki. 

CHAPTER  XXX, 
ExoMlses  in  False  Syntax, 

CHAPTER  XXXr. 
Colloquial  Inaccuracies, 

CHAPTEK  XXXTI. 


PJiiih    i  1. 

14. 
15. 
16. 

17. 
1«. 
IH. 

irvr  2(1. 


154 


§1.  Punctuation, 

"3.  Th#  Principal  Stops, 

3.  Two  Classes, 

4.  The  Comma— Rales  and  Remarks  of 

same, 
0.  Semicolon— Rules  and  Remarks  of 

same, 
C.  Colon— Rules  and  Remarks  of  same, 

7.  Period, 

8.  The  Dash, 

;i.  The  Parenthesis, 

10.  Intorrorration  I'oint, 

11.  Exclaniatiou  Point, 

12.  Brackets, 

13.  Quotation  Marks, 

14.  The  Ciiret, 
1,1.  The  Hyphen. 

16.  The  Kflipsis. 

17.  The  Iiule.N., 

18.  The  Paratjrapb, 

19.  The  Section, 

20.  DiarcsiSj 

21.  Accent, 

22.  The  Apostrophe, 
2«.  Brace. 

34.  Afterisks, 
25.  Foot  Notes, 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

False  Panctuafion, 
Use  of  Capital  Letters, 


:;  2(i. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 


f  1.  ProiodT. 
5.  Two  Parts, 


CHAPTER  XXXV 


§  1.  Poetry, 
i.  Versilicatiou, 
8.  A  Verse. 

4.  A  Hemistich, 

5.  A  Couplet, 

6.  Stanza, 

7.  Common  Metre, 

8.  short  >fetrc, 

9.  Lou^  .Metre, 
10.  Blank  Verse. 


29. 

170  30. 

171  i"^  • 
172 '•5'- 


179 

ir2!:jj- 

172  •''■ 

i7;ij 

178i 

l''I?l. 


iPi] 


Itlivuie. 

180 

.'Vnalvsis  of  Rhyming  Syllablon, 

180 

Sin'  )e  Rhyme, 

181 

Double  Rhvuie, 

181 

Treble  Rhym«, 

181 

Scanniuc, 

181 

Eight  kinds  of  Feet. 

1J<1 

Iambic  Verse, 

183 

Alexandrine, 

18a 

The  Elegiac  Stanza, 

183 

The  Spenserian  Stanza. 

18S 

Additional  :^norl  Syllable, 

183 

Trochaic  Verse, 

184 

The  Accent, 

184 

The  Long  Syllable. 

184 

Anapirstic  Verse, 

184 

liactylic  Verse, 

185 

Tlu-  Iambic, 

186 

Trochee, 

188 

Spondee, 

IStt 

Pyrrhic, 

186 

Amphibrach. 

1S7 

Tribrach, 

187 

The  Dactyl, 

187 

Anaprest, 

187 

Rules  for  Reading  Verse, 

187 

Contractions  and  Additions, 

188 

CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

Rhetoric, 

196 

K.xnrdium, 

196 

Narration. 

196 

lonrirmation. 

196 

The  Refutation, 

196 

"  i '  Peroration, 

196 

17,5 
177 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
;ures  of  Speech, 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 


Composition, 
Vol  Subjects  for  Composition, 


CHAPTER  X' 

English,  Latin,  and  Greek  1'. 
Glossary, 

APPENDIX. 


17!) 
IT.) 
ISO 
ISO 
J  80 
ISO 
ISO 
180 
180 
180 


197 


Figures  of  Syntax,  l!H 

CHAPTER  XXXIX. 


200 

209 


204 


Nouns,  207 

Explanation  of  French  Words,  213 
I  Explanation  of  Latin  Words  and  Phra- 

j  ses,  S15 

Abbreviations.  818 


AN   ANALYTICAL, 
ILliuSTJlATlVE  AND  CONSTRUCTIVE 


PART   I. 

CHAPTER  I. 

SENTENCES. 

§  1.  Sentence,  from  the  Latin  senteyitia,  .is  a  number  of 
tvords  arranged  in  due  order,  forming  a  complete  proposition, 
or  such  an  arrangement  of  words  as  asserts  a  fact. 

§  2.  Sentences,  classified  according  to  the  elements  of  Avhich 
they  are  composed,  are  of  three  kinds  ;  viz.,  Simple,  Compound, 
and  Complex. 

§  3.  A  Sentence  is  simple  when  it  contains  but  a  single 
subject  and  predicate ;  as,  "  God  is  omnipotent.'' 

Kemark  1. — A  Sentence,  however,  may  be  regarded  as  simple  when  its  principal 
parts  nre  modified  by  elemonts  of  the  firi-t  kind  or  single  words,  used  as  constit' 
uent  parts  of  a  sentonce^  as,  "  A  very  good  pen  writes  extremely  icell." 

§  4.  A  Sentence  is  compound  when  it  consists  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences,  united  by  a  coordinate  connective,  each 
member  asserting  an  independent   fact;  as,  "  Wheat  grows  in^ 
the  field,  and  men  reap  it." 

Rem.  1.— a  Sentence  is  partially  compound  when  its  subject,  predicate,  or  ob- 
ject is  compound  ;  as,  "  Moses  and  Aran  stood  before  Pharaoh."  Kingdoms  vise 
and  fall."    "  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth." 

§  5.-  A  Sentence  is  complex  when  its  leading  member  or  some 
word  in  that  member,  is  modified  by  a    subordinate  clause;  as,. 
"A  man  who  is  industrious,  will  acquire  a  competency." 

Rem.  1. — There  is  a  marked  difference  !)■  twcon  compnund  and  cowp/cx  sentences, 
and,  of  this  difference,  the  learner  should  have  a  clear  cuncepti  u.    A  compound 


22  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

sentence,  from  con=together,  and  pono=to  place,  is  composed  of  two  or  mor^sim- 
ple  sentences,  not  to  express  any  modification  of  the  fact,  asserted  in  the  leading 
member.;  but  to  join  on  members  which  assert  additional  facts — which  facts  though 
they  have  a  relation  to  each  other  in  current  discourse,  may  be  expressed  by  inde- 
pendent propositions  ;.as,  "  Wheat  grows  in  the  field,  men  reap  it,  mills  grind  it, 
bakers  bake  it,  and  eaters  oat  it."  Each  member  of  the  above  sentence,  expresses 
a,Q  additional  fact ;  these  members  being  connected  by  a  co-ordinate  connective, 
either  expressed  or  understood,  constitute  properly  a  compound  sentence  which 
may  be  continued  at  the  writer's  pleasure,  or  till  the  subject  is  exhausted. 

■Rem.  2. — In  a  complex  sentence,  from  con=together,  &nAplecto^=to  weave,  fha 
members  are  subordinate  in  rank  ;  hence  they  do  not  express  new  facts ;  but  are 
used  to  modify  the  leading  nsember,  or  some  subordinate  one  ;  as,  "The  man  wh) 
seeks  his  happiness  from  terrestrial  sources,  will  quit  the  world  With  great  reluc- 
tance." The  man  will  quit  the  werld  with  great  reluctante.  What  man  ?  Cer- 
tainly not  any  man  ;— but  "  the  man  who  sbbks  his  happinkss  from  terres- 
trial sotTRCES,"  then  "who  sbeks  his  hippiness 'from  terrestrial  sources," 
modifies  "  man,"  the  subject  of  the  leading  clause,  by  showing  what  man  he 
is  that  "  will  quit  the  world  tot/A  great  reluctance."  "  Who  seeks  his  happiness  " 
mociifies  the  subject  of  the  leading  clause,— "/»o»«  terrestrial  sources"  modifiws  it 
indirectly  through  the  medium  of  •' ToSo  sccis  his  happiness ;"  hence  you  perceive 
that  the  members  or  elements  of  a  complex  sentence  are  not  simply  placed  together 
as  in  a  compound  sentence  ;  but  are  woven  or  twisted,  as  it  were,  together  by  modi- 
fying the  leading  members  or  each  other. 

Rem.  3. — Members  joined  on  by  conjunctive  adverbs,  are  complex— aot  being  used 
to  affirm  new  facts,  but  to  modify  those  expressed  in  the  principal  members ;  and 
the  conjunctive  adverb,  as  an  adverb,  considered  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  element, 
generally  modifies  the  verb  in  the  leading  member,  itself  being  modified  by  a 
clause;  as,  "  We  go.to  church  when  tAc  "c/oci  strikes  ten."  The  idea  the  wri- 
ter wifhes  to  convey  by  this  sentence,  is  the  time  we  go  to  church  ;  ichen  being  in- 
definite in  time,  is  incompetent  to  point  out  the  precise  time  we  go  to  church  ;hencB 
the  writer  subjoins  "  the  clock  strikes  ten"  Now  it  is  obvious  that  the  writer  does 
not  intend  to  convey  the  idea  simply  that  the  clock  strikes  or  how  often  it  strikes  ; 
but  he  uses  the  phrase,  to  make  the  time  indicated  by  "  when  "  more  definite  ;  then, 
if  "  the  clock  strikes  ten  "enables  "when  "  to  do  what  before  it  was  incompetent  to 
do,  t- e.,  to  t  11  the  precise  time  "we  goto  cAwrc  A,"  it  is  obvious  that  "  the  clock 
strikes  ten,"  modifies  "  when,"  and  not  that  "  when  "  modifies  "strikes,"  a?  is  tre- 
quently  but  erroneously  supposed  ;  but  the  entire  subordinate  clause,  "  when  the 
clock  strikes  ten"  as  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  class,  modifies  the  verb  "  go" 
by  pointing  out  the  time  when  of  the  action.     See  Elements  of  Sentences. 

Rem.  4. —  When  a  sentence  is  composed  •f  compound  and  complex  elements,  it  is 
e&\d  to  he  mixed ;  a,s,  "The  man  and  boy  who  were  droioned,  ha.\e,  a,t  length,  been 
found." 

Rem.  5. — As  to  the  elements  necessary  to  constitate  a  compound  sentence,  it  may 
be  observed  that  authors  are  not  fully  agreed.  The  most  common  solution  given  of 
the  compound  sentence,  is  that  given  above,  in  which  the  members  or  clauses  are 
united  by  a  co-ordinate  connective;  consequently  of  equal  rank  in  construction  ; 
but  some  contend  that  a  sentence  is  compound  when  either  the  subject  or  predicate 
is  compound,  or  even  the  object;  as,  "Henry  and  William  study  their  lesson;" 
"  Kingdoms  rise  and  fall ;"  "  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  ;"  because  such 
sentence?  may  be  resolved  into  two  or  more  simple  sentences,  or  the  same  idea  may 
be  expressed  by  idfcking  a  separate  afiBrmation  concerning  each  element  of  which 
'  the  compound  subject  is  composed,  or  by  attaching  the  same  lubject  to  each  of  the 
elements  of  the  compound  predicate,  or  by  repeating  the  same  subject  and  predi- 
cate before  each  element  in  the  compound  object;  thus,' "Henry  studies  his  lesson, 
and  William  studies  his  lesson."  "  Kingdoms  rise,  and  kingdoms  fall."  "  God 
created  the  heavens,  and  He  created  the .  earth."  The  authors  referred  to  hare 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are  compound. 

That  such  sentences  are  partially  compound,  is  readily  admitted;  but,  as  the 
admission  of  such  a  definition  would  interfere  with  some  of  the  rules  of  Syntax  as 
well  as  thoseof  PuuctUiition,  and,  as  some  sentences  Laving  a  ccaipound  subject, 
can  not  be  resolved  into  simple  members  ; 'as,  e.  g.,  "Oxygen  and  Hydrogen  form 
water,"  we  think  it  best  to  adhere  to  the  solution  already  given  of  the  compound 
sentence. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  23 

Exercises. 

Model  1st.  "Gold  is  yellow."  This  is  a  sentence,  because  it  contains 
such  an  arrangement  of  words,  as  asserts  a  fact.  It  is  a  sim.ple  sentence, 
because  it  contains  but  one  subject" and  predicate.  Gold  is  the  subject,  and 
is  yellow  the  predicate.     Is,  taken  by  itself,  is  ih%- verh  or  copula. 

Model  2d.  "The  day  was  calm,  and  the  scene  was  delightful."  This  is  a 
ct)m;j()?«j(Z  sentence,  because  it  contains  two  clauses,  united  by  a  coordinate 
connective,  each  of  which  asserts  an  independent  fact. 

Modeled.  "They  who  sow  in  tears,  shall  reap  in  joy."  This  is  a  com- 
plex sentence,  because  it  contains  a  leading  and  a  subordinate  or  modifying 
clause.  They  shall  reap  in  joy,  is  the  leading  clause  ;  and  who  sow  i?i  tears 
the  subordinate  or  modifying  clause.  It  is  called  the  subordinate  or  modi- 
fying clause,    because  it  modifies  they,  the  subject  of  the  leading  clause. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

■  "Water  flows.  The  sun  shinas.  Time  slept  on  flow.crs,  and  lent  his 
glasses  to  hope.  The  lady  that  is  wise  and  prudent,  never  complains  of 
adversity.  A  vei^  good  pen  writes  extremely  well.  He  who  studies  his 
lesson,  will  improve.  The  law  of  the  Lord  is  perfect.  The  sun  shines  by 
day  ;  and  the  moon  gives  light  by  night.  The  partridge  fiies  swiftly.  Tliose 
little  birds  sing  sweetly.  In  the  beginning  was  the  Word,  and  the  Word 
was  with  God,  and  the  Word  was  God.  Adams  and  Jefferson  died  on  the 
4th  of  July.  The  sun  shines  upon  all  men  who  will  receive  his  rays.  The 
day  was  hot.  The  rain  v^hich  fell  on  last  August,  caused  a  great  freshet. 
The  law  was  given  by  Moses ;  but  grace  and  truth  came  by  Jesus  Christ. 
Paul  wrote  many  epistles  which  he  sent  to  the  different  churches.  Day 
unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  unto  night  showeth  knowledge.  Bona- 
parte  was  defeated  at  Waterloo,  and  died  at  St.  Helena.  God  is  omnipo- 
tent. They  who  live  in  glass  houses  should  not  throw  stones.  Day  was 
descending  in  the  west  when  I  brought  his  arms  to  Crothar.  The  sun- 
beams rest  on  the  grave  where  her  beauty  sleeps.  We  had  heard  the 
news  before  the  messenger  arrived.  The  Greeks  defeated  the  Turks.  A 
green,  narrow  vale  appeared  before  us. 

"Your  friends  may  die,  and  haste  away 
To  that  blest  world  of  rest ; 
But  Mary's  part,  with  you,  will  stay. 
And  ever  make  you  blest." 


CHAPTER    II. 

SENTENCES   CONTINUED. 

§  1.  Sentences,  classified  according  to  the  degree  of  verbal 
force  with  which  the  affirmation  is  made,  are  of  six  kinds,  viz  : 
Affirmative,  Subfikmative,  Exclamative,  Interrogative, 
Imperative,  and  Petitionary. 

§  2.  An  Affirmative  sentence  expresses  the  highest  degree  of 
verbal  force ;  as,  "  Job  Avas  patient." 


24  Analytical,  illustrative   akt> 

Rem.  a  Negative  sentence  is  not  intended  to  J)e  distinguished  from  the  affirmative 
in  this  classification,  a<!  the  verbal  force  is  tho  s.imn  in  both,— 'the  nes^ation  being 
affected  by  the  modifying  element  not ;  as,  "  Some  men  are  not  paiien^." 

§  3.  A  Suhfirmative  sentence  expresses  a  less  degree  of  ver- 
bal force;  as,  "  I  may  have  been  mistaken." 

§  4.  An  Exclamative  sentence  expresses  together  with  the 
aflfirmation,  some  emotion  of  feeling  ;  as, 

*  "  How  beauteous  are  their  feet, 

Who  stand  on  Zion's  hill !" 

Rem.  As  Exclamative  sentences  express  au  emotion,  they  should  always  be  closed 
with  an  exclamation  point. 

§  5.  An  Interrogative  sentence  contains  a  questioti ;  as, 
"  Was  Job  patient  f" 

Rem.  1. — There  are  two  kinds  of  Interrogative  sentences — Direct  .and  Indirect. 

Rem.  2. — An  interrogative  sentence  is  direct  when  the  question  ij  asked  with  a 
verb  and  the  answer  in  the  responsive  member  will  be.  Yes  or  No\  buJ  when  the 
responsive  member  is  rendered  plenary,  No  becomes  Not  ;  as,  "  Will  you  go?  No 
(rendered  plenary),  I  will  not  go." 

Rem.  .3 — Direct  Interrogative  sentences  should  be  closed  with  the  upward  slide  of 
the  voice  :  as, '' Is  the  minister  at  home?" 

Rem.  4.— An  Interrogative  sentence  is  indirect  when  the  question  is  asked  with 
an  interrogativepronoun  or  adverb  ;  as,  "  Who  will  go?    Why  have  you  done  so  ?" 

Rem.  6. — When  we  inquire  for  the  subject  in  the  resjmnsive  member,  the  ques- 
tion must  be  asked  with  ihe  nominative  case ;  us  who  wrote  that?  'John:"  but, 
When  we  inquire  for  the  object  of  the  responsive  member,  the  question  must  be 
asked  with  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "  Whom  shall  we  send  ?     Him  and  me." 

Rem.  6 — When  we  inquire  for  ihe  predicate  of  the  responsive  member;  the  question 
must  be  asked  with  a  verb ;  as,  "  Was  be  at  home  ?" 

Bem.  7. — When  we  inquire  for  the  reasojior  cause  for  what  is  affirmed  in  the 
responsive  member,  the  question  must  be  asked  with  the  adverbs  why  and  wherefore  ] 
as,  "  Why  do  you  delay  ?     Because  I  have  not  determined  to  go." 

Rem.  8. — When  wo  inquire  for  the  scene  of  the  predicate  in  the  responsive  member, 
the  question  must  be  isked  with  the  adveib  where  ;  as,  "Where  were  you  standing 
when  the  procession  passed?     In  the  door." 

Rem.  9. — When  we  inquire  for  the  manner  of  the  predicate  in  the  responsive  mem- 
ber, thequcstion  must  be  asked  with  the  adverb  how  ;  as,  "How  did  Cataliue  die? 
Disgracefully. 

Rem.  10. —  When  we  ii.quire  for  the  quantity  of  the  predicate  in  the  responsive 
member,  the  question  must  bo  asked  with  how  much  ;  as,  "  How  much  did  he  give  ftr 
the  horse  ?     One  hundred  d(.ilars." 

Rem.  11 — When  we  inquire  for  the  ^,me  of  the  predicate,  the  question  must  bo 
asked  with  the  adverbs  hoiv  long  and  when  ;  as,  "  How  long  wilt  thou  abuse  our 
patience,  0  Cataline?     When  will  CjOFar  cease  from  conquering?" 

Rem.  12. — And  when  we  inquire  for  the  origin  or  source  of  the  predicate,  the 
question  must  be  asked  with  the  adverb  whence ;  as,  "  Whence  arise  wars?  From 
ambition." 

Rem.  13. — It  should  be  observed  that  the  responsive  members  are  generally  very 
implenary — frequently  having  but  one  word  expressed;  but,  in  analyzing,  they 
must  be  rendered  plenary. 

§  6.  A  sentence  is  Imperative  when  it  contains  a  command ; 
as,  "Know  thyself." 

§  7.  A  sentence  is  Petitionary  when  it  contains  a  petition  ; 
as,  "  Forgive  us  our  debts." 


CONSTUUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  25 

Rem.  1. — The  charactoristic  difference  between  an  Tmporative  and  Petitionary 
Beiitence  is  this ;  a  soptonro  is  troly  Tmpcraihv  when  the  speaker  has  power  to  cn- 
fort-e  obcdionoo  to  his  ri.u  minds  ;  but  it^  is  Prtitiniianj  when  the  speaker  has  no 
power  to  enforce  obedienrr  The  predicate  of  nny  Imperative  sontcnct*  ia  always  in 
tbo  Itnjiorativo  mood  ;  l>nt  ihe  predicnto  of  a  Petitionary  sentence  maybe  in  the  Im- 
perative or  Potential  mooii ;  as  ''  Do  attend  to  my  instructions.  May  the  Lord 
prosper  your  way." 

Kem.  2. — Petitionary  sentences  arc  of  two  k'mds—Birfict  and  Indirect.  A  Peti- 
tionary sentence  is  direct  when  the  subject  is  of  the  ftecond  person,  and  the  verb  in 
the  Imperative  mode  ;  as,  '•  Lead  us  notinto  temptation,"  i.  e.,  Lead  thou,  <f-c. 

Rkm.  3. — The  petition  is  indirect  when  the  subject  is  of  the  third  person,  and  the 
verb  is  of  the  Potential  morie ;  an, 

"  0  may  thy  powerful  itord 
Inspire  a  feeble  worm!"   ■ 

Exercises. 

Mocf4fl\st.  "God  is  omnipotent."  This  sentence  is  affirmative,  heiCOMSQ 
it  expresses  the  liighest  degree  of  verbal  force.  It  is  simple,  because  it 
contains  but  one  subject  and  predicate.  God  is  the  snhject ;  is  omnijfotenty 
the preilifiate,  and  in,  taken  by  itself,  is  the  rerh  or  copula. 

Model  2d.  "The  day  may  have  been  lost."  This  sentence  is  suh/irmative, 
because  it  expresses  a  less  degree  of  verbal  force.  It  is  simple,  &c.,  (see 
Model  1st.) 

Model  3d.  "Is  the  gentleman  at  home  ?"  This  sentence  is  interrogative, 
because  it  contains  a  question  ;  direct,  because  the  question  is  asked  with 
a  verb,  and  the  answer  may  bo,   Yes  or  Xo. 

Model  Ath.  "Boys,  obey  niy  precepts."  This  sentence  is  imj)erative, 
because  it  contains  a  command,  and  the  speeker  is  supposed  to  have  power 
'to  enforce  oljediencc. 

Model  5th.  "Deliver  us  from  evil."  This  sentence  is  petitionary, 
because  it  contains  a  petition.  Direct,  because  the  subject  is  addressed, 
-and  the  verb  ig  in  the  imperative  mode. 

Model  Gth.  "  May  the  Lord  go  with  thee."  This  sentence  is  petitionary, 
"because  it  contains  a  pctitiou.  Indirect,  because  the  subject  is  of  the  third 
,person,  and  (tlxi  verb,  in- the  2Jotential  mode. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

The  Lord  is  my  shepherd.  The  day  was  calm  and  the  scene  delightful, 
(Canst  thou  expect  to  escape  the  hand  of  vengeance?  Go  ye  into  all  the 
world,  a.nd  preach  my  gospel  unto  every  creature.  How  swiftl}'  time  fiic^j 
The  day  glides  sweetly  o'er  our  heads.  1  may  have  hcanl  it,  though  I  do 
.not  recollect  it.  May  wi.><doni  guide  thy  steps.  Take  no  thought  for  to- 
morrow. ^Vhy  does  lie  stay  so  king?  When  will  ho  return  ?  V^ho  will 
undcrt'ike  the  enterp'riKC?  They  sleep  in  death,  and  hear  of  wars  no  more. 
Hast  thou  an  arm  like  (iod  ?  How  vain  are  all  things;  bore  below  !  How 
«hall  we  osciipe,  if  we  neglect  so  great  salvation?  Render  unto  C;i?sar 
the  things  that  be  Cassar's.  l*he  day  may  be  fine.  Why  seek  ye  that 
whirh  is  not  broad  V  May  his  grace  sustain  you.  How  happy  is  the  pil- 
grim's lot!  llemeipber  thp  Sabbath  day.  Where  has  he  gone?  The 
«un  shines  upon  the  floor. 

Who  can  resolve  the  d.'ubt 
That  tears  my  anxious  breast  ? 

Rem.  SoTh  qaoftiont' hs  the  foriowin?  mny  be  Bdvantiareons.  Why  a  Rontcnee  ? 
Why  simple  or  compound  ?  Why  affinruitire?  Muhfirmafive  7  cxclam'itix-e?  inter- 
rogatire  ?  imprralife  ?  nr  petitionary  ?  Why  director  indited/  If  direct,  whu^ 
elide    mu«t  tbn  vuiue  take  at  tbo  close  of  tbe  scntcoco,  <te. 


26  XKALTTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE     AND 

CHAPTER    III. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE. 

§  1.  In  affirmative  and  sul)firmati\^e  sentences,  the  subject  or 
nominative  is  generally  construed  before  the  predicate  or  verb  ; 
as,  "  Moses  smote  the  rock."  But  this  order  is  frequently 
transposed. 

An  Intransitive  verb  is  frequently  construed  before  its  nominative, 
especially  in  poetic  style;  as,  "Above  it  stood  the  seraphim." — Isaiah  vi. 
"CJradual  sinks  the  breeze." — Thomson. 

When  a  sentence  commences  with  any  of  the  following  words,  viz.  :  here, 
there,  hence^  thence,  (hen,  thu.%  yet,  90,  nor,  neither,  such,  the  same,  herein, 
therein,  ^rherein,  and  .some  other  words  of  similar  import,  the  verb  is  con- 
strued before  its  nominative;  as,  "  Here  are  five  men  ;"  "there  grows  the 
flower  of  the  mountain  ;''  "  then  came  the  scribes  and  Phari.sees  ;  "  "  henco 
arise  wars;"  "thence  proceed  our  vicious  habits;"  "  thus  saith  the  Lord;" 
"yet  required  I  not  bread  of  the  (lovernor." — Xeh.  v.,  18.  "So  panteth 
my  soul  after  thee,  O,  Lord." — Psalm  xlii.  "Neither  hatlk  this  man  sin- 
ned nor  his  parents." — Jofiii  \x.  "  Such  were  t)ie  facts;"  "the  same  was  a 
fact;"  *'  herein  consists  the  excellency  of  the  English  government."' — Black- 
etoneh  Com.,  Book  \. 

When  a  sentence  is  introduced  by  an  emphatic  adjective,  the  verb  is  con- 
strued before  its  nominative;  as,  "Great  is  Diuna  of  the  Ephesians" 
Also,  when  a  sentence  commences  with  a  preposition,  the  nominative  is 
generally  construed  after  the  verb ;  as,  "  On  eillier  side  of  the  river,  grcT*' 
the  tree  of.  life." 

§  2.  In  interrogative  sentences,  especially  when  direct,  the 
nominative  is  construed  after  the  verb  or  between  the  first  aux- 
iliary and  principal  verb  ;  as,  "  Belicvcst  thou  the  prophets?" 
"  And  must  I  be  to  judgment  brought  V 

In  indirect  interrogations,  the  objective  case  is  frequently  construed  be- 
fore the  word  which  governs  it ;  as,  "  Whom  seest  thou  V" 

§  3.  In  imperative  and  petitionary  sentences,  the  nominative 
is  invariably  construed  after  the  verb  and  is  generally  under- 
stood ;  as,*  "My  son,  give  me  thy  heart."  "Give  us  this  day 
our  daily  bread." 

•Rfm.  1. — It  may  be  observed  that  what  is  said  of  the  construction  oi  i'he  petition- 
ary sentences,  applies  to  direct  petitions  ;  for  the  subject  of  indirect  petitionary  sen- 
ti  I'cos,  i«  ;;en«raUy  construed  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb;  as,  "  May  the 
Li  rd  prosper  your  way." 

In  exclamative  sentences,  the  subject  is  frequently  constrael  after  the  prod- 
icate,  or  between  its  parts  when  it  consists  of  more  parts  than  one;  as,  "  How  beau- 
teous are  their /ee/ .'"     "  How  do  thy  mercies  close  me    round  I" 

Rkm.  2. — The  learner  may  derive  much  aid  in  parting  by  carefully  s'udying  the  con- 
Btruciion  of  the  subject  and  predicate  as  exhibited  in  the  different  kinds  of  sentences 
JBSt  explained.  Th'  ugh.  in  the  natural  order  of  cont-truction  in  the  Englist.  lan- 
guage, the  subject  is  construed  before  the  verb  or  predicate,  and  the  verb,  before 
its  object :  yet  fo  frequent  are  ihe  transpositions  of  sentences  for  vari<  us  purposes 
that  but  little  aid  can  bo  derived  in  parsing  from  this  order  of  conatraction.  The 
ecDse  alone  must  be  looked  to  as  the  only  competent  guide. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  27 

CHAPTER    IV. 

ELEMENTS    OP    SENTENCES. 

§  1.  The  compoiitnt  parts  of  a  sentence  are  called  its  ele- 
ments. 

Elements,  classified  according  to  the  ofl5ce  which  they  perform,  may  be 
ranked  under  jBve  distinct  heads,  namely — substantive,  verbal,  adjective, 
adverbial  aftd  connect  ice. 

§  2.  Substantive  elements  embrace  all  nouns  and  pronouns, 
and  all  phrases  and  clauses  used  substantively. 

Rem.  1.— Any  word  or  combination  of  words  which  can  be  made  the  subject  of  a 
proposition,  is  a  substanlivc  clement. 

Siibstanth^e  elevacnts  occupy  a  prominent  position  in  the  eonstructi  on  of  sen- 
tences. They  are  to  the  sentence  what  the  bones  are  to  the  animal  system.  Tuey 
are,  as  it  were,  tbe  solid  parts  to  which  other  elements  attach  themselves  in  va- 
rious ways  Id  the  verbal    frnme-work  of  a  sentence. 

When  a  substantive  element  is  a  subject  of  a  proposition,  it  may  be  called  the  sub- 
jective element,  and,  when  it  is  the  object,  the  objective  element,  and,  wnen  it  lim^ 
its  another  substantive  by  pointing  out  the  thing  possessed,  it  may  be  denominated 
the  /)o«»c»sit)e  element ;  us,  "John  hurt  Peter's  head."  In  this  sentence, /o^n  is 
the  ^ut1jective  element,  because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  affirmation ;  iV/c/'s  limits 
head  by  pointing  out  tbu  oliject  possessed  ;  it  is.  therefore,  the  possessive  element  ; 
and  head  is  the  objective  element,  beoause  it  limits  the  predicate  hurt,  1-y  pc*hjting 
out  tbe  object  of  its  action. 

Rem.  2. — As  the  possessive  element  limits  another  substantive  element,  it  is  ad- 
jective in  Jhis  respect;  but,  as  it  retains  its  substantive  character  in  other  respects, 
we  have  chosen  to  call  it  the  possesHve  element. 

§  3.    Verbal  elements  include  all  verbs  and  their  variations. 

Reit.  1. — As  the  finite  verb  or  the  verb  limited  by  a  nominative,  is,  in  a  gram  - 
matica4  sense,  either  the  predicate  itself,  or  an  essential  part  of  it,  it  occupies  a  very 
important  position  in  a  sentence  as  an  element. 

Rem.  2  —It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  as  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  does  not 
limit  the  affirmation  to  any  particular  subject,  it  is  of  itself  incapable  of  being  the 
predicate  of  a  proposition. 

Rem.  3.— The  verb  in  th>e  infinitive  mode,  while  it  retains  fomeof  its  verbal  char- 
acter  under  all  circumstances,  partakes  at  the  same  time  of  the  nature  of  other  ele- 
ments. When  it  is  used  a?  the  subject  of  the  verb  or  tbe  object  of  a  verb,  it  per- 
forms the  office  of  a  substantive  element,  aod  maybe  regarded  as  a  substantive 
element;  as,  "  To  steal  is  base."  "  I  love  to  hear  an  eloquent  spoaker."  In  the 
first  example  to  steal  is  the  .subject  of  the  propcsition,  and,  of  course,  is  .-ii  stan- 
tive.  To  hear,  in  the  second  example,  has  an  objective  relation,  but,  as  it  oxpre.'is- 
•s  action  as  another  verb,  and  governs  an  objective  case,  it  may  be  thus  analyzed  : 
To  hear  is  a  verbal  element,  and  limits  the  verb  love  as  a  substantive  elemmt,  by 
pointing  out  the  object  of  its  action. 

Rem.  4.— When  the  infinitive  depends  upon  a  substantive  element  in  construc- 
tion, it  partakes  of  the  nature  of  an  adjective  element;  as,  "  He  has  received  a 
PROPOSAL  to  return."  •  He  saw  the  meteor  fall."  But,  when  it  depends  upon  some 
verbal  element  or  an  aiijtctive  element  as  its  complement,  it  partakes  of  the  nature 
of  an  adverbial  element;  as,  "  She  is  eagkr  to  learn."     "  They  ran  to  meet  him." 

Rem.  5.— Jn  .analyzing  the  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  it  may  in  all  cases,  except 
when  u.sed  as  the  subjevt  of  the  verb,  be  regarded  as  the  verbal  element.  Care 
should,  however,  be  taken  lo  point  out  the  change  of  meaning  produced  by  its 
modifying  inlluence  up'  •    t  ,o    loments  which  it  liuiits. 

§  4i.  Adjective  elements  embrace  all  qualifying  and  specify- 
ing adjectives,  articles,  participles,  and  all  phrasea  and  clauses 
used  adjectively. 


28  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

Rem.  1. Adjective  e]erDexitB  may  be  joined  to  subntantire  elements  either  with 

or  without  a  connective  ;  as,  (1)  "  Tall  treee."  (2)  "  Beautiful  streams."  (3)  "  The 
eun  is  bright."  (4)  "  The  day  -n-as  rold."  (5)  "  A  man  of  iiuhstri/."  (fi)  "  A 
]tLdy  tn/iois  prvdrvt."  In  the  first  two  examples,  tall  &nd  beautiful  atq  8A\i  to  ho 
assumed  of  trees  and  streams  respectively.  In  the  third  and  fourth,  the  attributes 
brii;ht  and  cold  are  affirmed  of  the  subjects  of  their  respective  sentences. 

Rem.  2. — The  difference  between  assuming  and  affirming  nn  attribute,  should  bo 
carefully  noted,  and  clearly  understood  by  the  learner.  In  Nos.  5  and  fi,  the  adjec^ 
tive  elements  are  joined  on  by  connectives,  but  their  adjective  character  is  as  obvious 
as  if  no  connectives  bad  been  used.  "A  vmn  nf  industry"  is. equivalent  to  "  An 
industrious  7nan  ;"  &n<\  "A  lady  who  is  prudent,"  equivalent  to  'Vl  prudent  Inly." 

§  5.  Adverbial  elements  embrace  all  adverbs,  words,  phrases 
and  clauses  used  adverbially ;  as, 

(l)"Shc  walks  fjracrfully.'"  (2)  "  CJho.sts  troop  Jwrne."  (3)  "  They 
went  into  the  country.''     (4)  "  Wc  po  to  church  ?/•/«  n  the  clod-  strikes  ten.^* 

Gracefully,  in  the  lirst  example,  limits  the  prcilicatc  waUs,  by  pointing 
out  the  Mm/iHfr  of  its  action.  Home,  in  the  second  example,  is  used  ad- 
vcrbiallj',  and  modifies  the  predicate  by  pointing  out  the  frcne  of  its  ac- 
tion. In  the  third  example,  into  the  country  is  a  j)hra.se  used  adverbially, 
and  limits  the  predicate  by  pointing  out  the  scene  of  its  actions.  When 
th«  clock  at rike»  ten,  \n  the  fourth  example,  is  a  clause  used  adverbially, 
and  modifies  the  predicate  ;/o  by  pointing  out  the  time  tchcn  of  its  action. 

§  6.  Connective  elements  embrace  all  conjunctions,  preposi- 
tions, relative  pronotins,  conjunctive  adverbs,  and  attributive 
verbs. 

Connective  elements  are  divided  into  two  classes — co-ordinate  and  subor. 

dinate.  '  <.;,!• 

The  co-ordinate  unite  words  or  clauses  of  equal  rank  or  order  in  con- 

truction.  ,  .  ,    .  ,  , 

The  subordinate  unite  words,  phrases  or  ckuses  of  inferior  rank  or  order 
in  construction. 

Ppy  I To  the  former,  most   of  the   conjunctions  belong.     Relative  pronouns, 

prepositions,  and  conjunctions  belong  to  the  latter. 

Kem.  2. Conneqtive  elements,  as  they  are  not  the  signs  of  ideas,  but  the  relation 

of  ideas,  can-not  be  said  philosophically  to  belong  to  the  olements  of  a  sentence. 

Rkm.  3. T^e  elements  ot  a.  sentence  piay  consist  of  single  irortZs,  phrases,  or 

CL.VUSES.  ■  .-,,■, 

When  a  .^/n"/'  ic«rrf  is  used  as  a  constituent  part  ofa  sontenqe,  it  is  called  an 
element"  of  the;?r«/  class  ;  a  phrase  used  as  an  element  is  of  the  second  cIjss  ;  and  a 
clause  used  as  an  element  is  of  the  third  class. 

gf.j,_  4 h  phrase  consists  of  two  or  more  words  united  in  one  element,  contain- 
ing no  affirmation;  as,  "  Jn  those  days"  a  clause  contains  an  affirmation  ;  as. 
"  When  he  comcs."  The  following  sentence  contains  the  three  classe.-  of  elements  : 
«'  That  nolle  tJeneral,  who  had  gai.ed  so  many  victories,  died  in  prison."  That,  noble, 
&t\d  General  are  each  elements  of  the  frst  class,  bcr-iiise  e>vch.  though  a  sii.ple 
word,  i?  used  a*  a  constituent  part  of  the  sentence.  Who  had  gained  so  many  ric- 
toric's,  is  an  adjectivj  element  of  the  third  class,  because  it  is  a  clause  cont.tining  a. 
auhiect  and  predicate  ;  it  limit?  the  su-ject,  General,  by  poiotins  out  xcknt  General 
is  icant.  Died  is  the  predicate,  and  is  also  an  element  of  theirs/  class.  //,  prison 
is  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class. because  it  is  a  phase.  It  limits  the  pnd- 
icate  bv  pointing  out  the  scene  of  its  action.  »     ,  .u 

Rfm'.  i>.— It  should  be  ot.strrved  that  each  wcrd^contained  in  an  element  ot  the 
«econt/ '.r  r/iirt/ elass,  bns  a  construction  of  its  own.  -hich  construction  i-hr.uld  he 
pointed  out  in  parsing,  though  all  the  words  comkined  roike  but  on?  clem  r  t ;  this 
will  appear  obvious  t.  the  attentive  student  from  the  fact  thi;  these  clemenU  are 
susceptible  of  being  reduced  to  an  element  of  the  first  clabs,  or  tingle  word,  without 
affecting  the  modification  in  the  least. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  29 

• 
RE^r.  6. — It  win  readily  he  perceived  that  in  each  of  bucIi  elenipnts  there  is  some 
laa(lin,<T  word  to  which  the  others  cluster,  and  whieh   may  be  called  the  base    of  tho 
element.  ,  ^ 

§  7.  These  five  elements  may  be  diviTlcJ  witli  reference  to 
their  importance  intb  two  kinds— Principal  and  SuIjordixate. 

The  subject  and  predicate  are  es'^ential  to  the  existence  of  a  proposition 
or  a  sentence  ;  as,  "  \ran  is  mortal."  In  this  sentence,  Mtai  is  the  Huhject  — 
is,  logicaIl)T  considered,  is  called  the  copiiln,  and  connects  the  subject  and 
predicate,  and  mortal  is  the  logical  i^rcdicate  ;  but  is  mortal  is  regarded  as 
the  grammatical  prgdicatc. 

§  8.  Subject,  from  the  Latin  Suhjectus=pla(jed  under,  is  the 
foundation  word  of  a  sentence  or  proposition,  or  that  concern- 
ing which  an  affirmation  is  made. 

The  simple  or  grammatical  subject  consists  of  a  single' word:  as,  "  Life 
is  short."  ♦ 

The  complex  or  logical  subject  consists  of  the  grammatical  -subject  and 
air  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  which  modify  it ;  as,  "  27ie  law  of  the  Lord 
is  perfect." 


§  9.  I^redicate,  from  the  Latin  Predico=to  say,  is  that  whicli 
is  affirmed  or  denied  of  the  subject;  as,  '^ Paper  is  tvhite." 
^^  I)ilc  is  7iot  tvhite."  * 

The  grammatical  or  siniple  predicate  consi.-its  of  the  verb,  q't  verb  to  he 
and  attribute  ;  as,  "The  Irini  flics."     "  Tlie  weather  is  cold." 

The  complex  or  logical  predicate  consists  of  the  grammatical,  predicate 
and  all  the  elements  which  qualify  it ;  as,  "  Grass  grows  in  great  ahundancc." 

llioxr.  1. -'-The  predicate  is  simple  when  ii;  consi.«ts  of  a  single  word;  as,  ".'^now 
falls,"  that  i.s,  snow  is  falling  It  is  eompound  when  it  consists  of  two  or  more 
worls,  united  by  a  coordinate  connective ;  as,  "  Kingdoms  rise  and  fall:— uniX  it  is 
complex  when  it  consists  of  two  or  more  elements  connected  by  a  subordinate  con- 
nective  ;  as,  "  He  lives  in  great  affiaence." 

Of  the  subject,  may  bo  predicated  action,  quality  and  identity  ;  as  "  The 
Jioi'se  runs."     "  The  man  is  goody     "John  is  a  student^ 

Rem.  2. —  In  some  cases  it  is  said  that  cxistrnre  only  is  predicated  ;  as,  "  Deux  est," 
there  is  a  God,  i.  e.,  God  exists,  or  G'd  is  existing  ;  but,  as  all  verbs',  philosophically 
speaking,  express  «c<(0»J,  it  will  be  sufficiently  correct  to  sny  rtc/(o«  is  predion  rd, 
even  where  the  verb  to  be  is  employed  ;  as,  "  lie  is,  I  ani."  i.  e  ,  He  is  living.  I  am 
living,  or  breathing  ;  hence  we  say,  when  one  is  dead,  he  is  not,  i.  t.,  ho  is  not 
living  or  breathing. 

Rem.  3. — It  is  also  said  that  possession  is  sometimes  predicated  of  the  subject  ;  PS 
"The  kingdom  is  thine."  To  this  wc  have  no  particular  dbjoctions  ;  though,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Webster's  view— to  wliich  wo  sub6eribe---//////r  is  a  substitute  for 
thy  kingdom,  or  thy  possession  j  ideniilij,  then,  is  predicated  even  in  this  case. 


30  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

§  10.  All  the  subordinate  elements  belong  either  to  the  sub- 
ject or  predicate.  ^ 

An  element  is  said  to  l^elone;  to  the  suV)ject  or  predicate  directly,  when 
it  modifies  the  subject  or  predicate,  and  indirectly,  when  it  modifies  the 
subject  or  predicate  through  the  niediuin  of  some  other  element;  as,  ''This 
day  is  very  mxich  ipoy^old."  Cold  modifies  the  subject  directly  ;  but  the 
elements  very,  much,  and  too,  modify  the  subject  indirectly  through  the 
medium  of  the  element  cold.  Very  qualifies  rmich — much  qualifies  too,  and 
too,  qualifies  cold. 

-  Hem.  1.— Such  words  as  very,  much,  and  too  are  geuorally  parsed  as  ndverbs  ,  l»ut, 
when  thoir  accumulated,  modifying  influence  affects  the  subject  or  some  other  s«6^ 
sinntivc  element,  through  the  medium  of  some  other  element  which  has,  so  to  speak, 
a  f^rammatical  affinity  for  a  substantive  element,  it  would  be  more  philosophical  to 
re>;ard  them  as  secondary  adjcctirts  ;  but,  if  these  and  similar  words  send  their 
modifying  influence  to  the  7;ic(Z/faie,  through  the  medium  of  some  other  element 
which  has  a  grammaticlfl  aflinity  for  the /;rc(/ica/<?  or  verbal  element,  they  may  be 
pr'  perly  regarded  as  adverbs  or  secondary  adverbs ;  as,  "  A  very  good  pen  writes 
upj  (/ well."  The  first  very,  in  this  sentence,  modifies  g'oorf;  then  according  to  the 
vi.  w  just  given,  very  is  a  secondary  adjective  element;  but  very  good,  taken 
to  I'ther,  is  a  complex  adjective  element,  and  limits  pen,  by  pointing  out  its  quality. 
Tlip  second  very  limits  ivell  directly,  and  the  predicate  writes  indirectly  through 
thi  medium  of  ity/i:  hence  it  may  be  called  a  secondary  adverbial  olement  ;  but 
1,-';^/ Jcc/Z,  taken  together,  ia  a,  complex  adverbial  element,  and  limits  the  predicate 
•  by  ('ointiog  out  the  manner  of  its  action. 


CHAPTER    V.  • 

THE    ANALYSIS    O^    SEN,TENCES. 

§  1.  The  analysis  of  a  sentence  consists  in  resolving  it  into 
its  constituent  pnrts  or  elements — in  naming  each  element  ac- 
cording to  the  office  it  performs— the  class  to  which  it  belongs, 
and  by  pointing  out  the  change  of  meaning  produced  by  its 
modifying  influence. 

]'  KM.  1 . — Before  entering  upon  the  regular  and  systematic  analysis  of  sentences,  tho 
ant  :ior  has  found  it  advantageous  to  lead  the  pupil  into  the  analysis  by  appropriate 
que  tions,  such  as  tlie  following.  "  The  gentlemnn  who  visited  me,  has  gone  into 
the  country."  What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  this?  Complex.  Why/  Because  it 
cortains  a  subordinate^ ox  modifying  rZa(/s«— united  by  a  subordinate  connective. 
Wbntisthe  subject?  Gentleman.  \yhy  ?  Because  something  is  said  or  affirmed 
ofir.  What  is  affirmed  of  it  ?  Has  gone.  What,  then,  is  Aas  ^o;/e?  The  predicate. 
Whv?  Because  it  is  rt#mjed  ff  the  Si;6;'ec<.  What  is  predicated  ?  Action.  What 
ele  icnts  limit  the  si/bjecf  ?  The  and  who  visited  me.  What  kind  ot  an  element 
is/.'(c/  An  adjectiv-c  element  of  the _^rs^  class.  Why  of  the  /rsf  class  ?  Because 
it  i>  a  sit'gle  ico/^  used  as  an  element  of  the  sentence.  V/hat  does  it  point  out  ? 
It  ]H  ints  out  gentleman  dtjinitely.  What  gentleman  ?  The  gentleman  who  visited  me. 
Wl. at  kind  of  an  element,  then,  is  who  visited  me  ?  It  is  an  adjective  element  of 
the  third  class.  Why  an  adjeetivive  clement?  Because  it  limits  a  substantive 
element.  What  does  it  point  out  ?  What  gentlemari,  is  meant.  Why  of  the  third 
cla>s  ?  Because  it  if  a  clause.  What  is  necessary  to  constitute  a  clause  ?  A  sith- 
ject  and  predicate.  The  gcntlemas  has  gone — where?  Into  Uf^  covntiy.  What 
kin  1  of  an  element,  tben,  is  into  the  country  ?    Adveibial.    Why?     Because  it  modi- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAU.  3 1 

ties  ihc  predicate-    What  does  it  point' oijj;?  The  scfne  of  \ts  action. — has  gone  into 

the  country.     Of  wha,t  class  ?     The  second.  Why?     Bocause  it   is  &  phrase     What 

is  necessary  to  •constitute  a  p/jrns^  ?     Two  or   tnore   \y)rds  united  In   one  o'ement 

containing  no  aflSrmation.  ' 

3[odel  1st.  "Those  beautiful  birds  sing  vcy  sweetly."  This  is  a  S8??7;)?c 
sentence,  because  it  contains  but  one  siihject  and  predicate,  modified  by 
elements  of  the.  first  class.  Those  is  an  adjective  element  ofthe^/irst  class, 
and  limits  Inrd^  by  pointing  it  out  in  the  most  definite  manner.  Beaut l/ul 
is  an  adjective  element  of  the  ^/f7'S^  class,  and  limits  the  subject  birds  by 
pointing  out  its  quality.  Birds  is  the  stthject,  because  something  i^snid 
OT  a tf I rmed  of  it.  Sings  is  the  predicate,  hacAase  affirmed  of  the  subject, 
actior,  being  predicated.  Very  sioeeily  is  a  complex  adverbial  element,  and 
modifies  the  predicate  by  pointing  out  the  manner  of  its  action. 
■  Model  2d.  "Joseph  fled  with  the  young  child  into  the  land  of  Egypt." 
This  sentence  is  partially  complex  ;  since  the  predicate  is  modified  by  a 
complex  element ;  but,  as  it  contains  but  one  subject  and  predicate,  such 
sentences  arc  generally  considered  simple.  JnHeph  is  the  subject  of  this 
sentence,  because  something  is  said  or  affirmed  of  it.  J^led  rs  \.\w  jjredicate, 
because  afTirmed  of  the  subject,  ac</(?ft  bein  :;  predicated.  With  the  young 
child  is  an  adrerbidl  element  of  the  second  class,  and  modifies  the  jtvedicatCy 
by  pointing  out  the^'«rw?i.?  in  company.  Into  the  land  is  also  an  adverbial 
element  of  the  second  class,  and  limits  the  predicate  by  pointing  out  the 
scens  of  its  action.  Of  Egypt  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  second  class, 
and  limits  Lmd  by  pointing  out  lohat  land  is  meant. 

Rem.  1. — Into  the  land  of  Egypt,  may  bo  analyzed  as  a  complex' adverbial  eleme- 
ment  ;  but.  while  into  th<  land  is  strictly    iidverbial,  as  a  modifier  of  the  jiredicale 
land,  con.-^idercd  in  ils   relati't.  to  other  oleraonts,  retains  its  sub.itantive   character, 
and,  as  such,  niiiy  ho  modified  by  an  adjective  ehment.     As  the  former  mode  of  anily 
sis  render3*tlie  sense  clearer,  it  is,  in  most  cases,  to  be  prefcrrc'. 

Modeled.  "That  hot  climates  shorten  human  life'is  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose." That  hot  climates  shorten  humah  life,  is  a  substantive  element  of 
the  third  class,  and  is  the  subject  of  the  proposition,  and  is  thus  par.sed: 
That  hot  c/imatt's  shorten  human  life,  is  a  substantive  clause,  and  is  the 
subject  of  the  verb  is,  according  to  rule.  Is  is  the  verb  9.nd  copula— hut 
is  reasonable  is  the  grammatical  predicate,  quality  bomg  predicated.  To 
s^jppose  is  a  verbal  element  oftlie  secdnd  class,  and  liaiits  reasonable  by 
com()leting  its  meSning,  and,  in  this  respect,  partakes  of  the  nature  of  an 
adverbial  element. 

V.r.M.  I. — It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  has  something 
of  the  nature  of  a  proposition,  as  mnj'  bo  seen  in  the  following  sentence!?.  ''  Ho 
offered  die  for  his  friends."  "  He  wont  join  the  army"  Every  one  must  perceive 
thewant  of  conrieciion  in  these  sentiences,  and  that  there  is  a  striking  rcsemblanco 
between  them  and  the  .sentences  in  which  the  preposition  is  omitted;  as,  "  He  went 
ch'jrch."  Too  wnut  of  conneccion  is  as  obvi-us  in  the  lormer  as  in  the  latter,  and 
that  to  must  bo  supplied  in  each  Kontenne  in  order  to  complete  the  sense.  Thu.-<. 
"  Ho  offered  to  die  tor  his  friends."  "  He  went  to  join  thd  army."  -"  He  went  to' 
church."  Honca  some  grammari ms  have  boL-n  led  to  call  to,  the  sign  of  rhe  inSni- 
tivo,  a,  pr(:pu.<tition  ;  (see  Goold  Browi.'s  Grammar). 

Rkm  2  — Tho  substantive  clause,  or  substantive  element  of  the  third  class,  is  fre- 
quently used  as  the  predicate  nouiinative;  as,  "  My  prayer  to  God,  is,  that  Israel 
might  be  saved."  Prayer,  in  tins  sentence,  is  the  grammatical  subje-t,  and  my 
prayer  to  God  is  the  log  cdl  subject ;  is  is  the  copula,  and  that  Israel  might  be  saved, 
lilr  pudi • tive. 

;""  '  iiatever  is,  is  rij^ht"     This  is  a  complcv  sentence,  &c. 

Whatceci-  ucuiij  regarded  as  a  substitute  for  whatever  thing,  in  the  subject. 


dJ  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

because  pomcthing  is  said  or  afijrmed  of  it.  Which  is  is  an  adjective  element 
o['  the  third  class,  and  limits  the  subject  b}'  pointing  out  ichat  thing  is  meant. 
Is  right  is  the  gniumiatical  predicate,  qnaUty  bcin^  predicated.  The  sen- 
tence rendered  plenary,  reads  thus,  "  \Vhatever  thing  which  is,  is  right."  ■ 
Model  5t7i.  "  I  looked  downward  where  a  hundred  realms  appear.'^ 
Where  a  hundred  realms  appear  is  the  subordinate  clause,  used  as  an  ele- 
ment of  the  sentence.  It  is  an  adverbial  element  of  the  thii'd  class,  and 
bmits  the  predicate  loolced  by  pointing  out  the  scene  of  its  action.  But,  in 
the  following  sentence,  a  similar  clause  is  an  adjecUve  element.  "There  is 
a  land  where  saints  immortal  reign."  In  this  sentence,  where  saints  im- 
mortal reign,  limits  Zaju?,  a  substantive  clement,  by  pointing  out  what  Icmd 
is  meant. 

Rem.  1  — The  aiijsctive  clause  in  such  cases  may  be  distinguislied  from  tlie  tidvcr- 
bial  bj  its  iidmitiifig  a  diflferent  constructiDi).  Thus,  "There  is  a  laad /«  which 
saints  immortal  reitju."  Wo  cannot  sa^,  "  I  looked  in  which  a  hundred  reslms  ap- 
pear." 

Model  Q>th,  "  The  sun  having  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey."  The  case 
absolute  with  Words  depen<ling  on  it,  is  called  by  Dr.  Webster,  the  clause 
ahsolute  or  independent.  (Juided  by  this  authority,  we  may  dispose  of  it 
as  follows.  27ie  sun  Jiaving  risen,  having  but  little  grammatical  connec- 
tion with  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is  not  regarded  as  an  elcnient  of  the 
sentence.  It  will  be  found,  howevtr,  that  such  a  phrase  or  clause  is  near- 
ly equivalent'lo  a  subordinate  clause,  approaching  very  near  to  the  force 
of  an  allirmation.  Thus,  '■'■  After  the  snnhad  rit<cn,  we  pursued  our  jour- 
ney." Viewed  in  this  light,  it  may  be  analyzed  as  an  element  of  the  second 
or  third  class,  generally  limiting  the  predicate  of  the  leading  clause  by 
pointing  out  the  time  or  some  other  circumstance  respecting  the  affirmation. 
"I  being  in  great  haste,  he  consented  "  In  this  sentencp,  /  ieing  in  great 
haste,  is  nearly  cfjuivalent  to,  As  I  icas  in  great  haste,  &c. 

Rem.  1.  —  As  the  case  independent^nd  interjections  have  no  grammatical  con» 
Btruction  in  a  sentence,  they  are  not  regarded  as  elements. 

MJdellth.  "Paul,  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Rome."  As  the  case  in  apposition  limits  the  word  which  it  identities, 
by  pointing  out  its  character,  profession,  or  vocation,  it  is  an  adjective 
element  in  ■this  respect;  but  it  retains  its  substantive  character  in  respect 
to  otiier  elemints.  Apostle  is  a  substantive  element,  usW  adjeclively,  and 
limits  the  sul  ject  Paui  by  pointing  out  its  character  ;  but  the  great  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles  may  be  analyzed  as  a  complex  adjective  element  of  the  sec- 
ond class,  limiting  Paul;  for  it  is  equivalent  to  a  relative  clause.  Thus, 
"Paul,  who  was  the  great  apjostle  of  the  Gentiles^  suffered  martyrdom  at 
Rome." 

Model  Sth.  "He  gave  me  good  instruction."  Me  or  to  me  is  an  adverbial 
element,  and  limits  the  predicate  by  pointing  out  the  indirect  object  of  its 
action. 

'  Model  ^th.  "I  will  go  if  you  will  accompany  me."  If  you  will  acG0ii\- 
pa'hy  me,  is  a  subordinate  clause,  or  an  advtihial  element  of  the  third  class, 
and  modiScs  the  predicate  orill  no  by  pointing  out  the  condition  of  its 
affirmation.      * 

Rem.  1. — That  this  clause  is  adccy'ui'l  will  be  readily  preceived  by  eoiiStruing  the 
sentence  as  loHows.  '' I  will  go  <.n  condition  that  y'V  will  accomjj.iny  me."  T^^e 
sius'j  is  tiie  same  as  that  ot  tbe  former  eonstruotion — but,  in  the  'latter  constructitn, 
the  adverbial  charai;ter  of  the  clause  i.-:  undeniable. 

Rem.  2.-  -  Guided  by  the  models  already  given,  and  more  especially  by  the  sense, 


*  CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  33 

tt  is  belicvod  that  tho  attentive  studont  will  be  able  to, analyze  any  well  constructed 
sentence. 

Logical  Axalvsis. 

,  Jf/Hlel.  "  AlII  animals  which  feed  on  flesh,  are  carnivorou'=."  All  animals 
which  feed  oiiJle/<h,  is  ll»e  logical  nuhjccl,  because  it  is  that  part  of  the  sen- 
tence of  which  thcaflinii;\tion  is  made.  Are  is  the  copula,  and  connects  the 
sabjoct  and  predicate.  Carnivorous  is  the  logical  predicate,  quality  being 
predicated. 

Rem.  1.— The  copula  is  often  included  in  the  predicate;  ae,  tho  Romans  con- 
quered/' i.  c  ,  the  Romans    were  conquering  or  wore  victorious- 

Examples  for  PitACiicG. 

Thej'- who  sow  in  tears,  .shall  reap  in  joy.  Time  slept  on  flowens,  and 
lent  his  glasses  to  hope.  My  friends  visit  uic  very  often  at  my  father's 
aflicc.  Tike  Canary  bird  sings  very  sweetly.  A  very  bad  pen  will  not  writ& 
well.  The  lady  who  instructed  me  is  an  excellent  scholar.  I  am,  through 
the  lavv,  dead  to  the  law.     God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth  in  six  days. 

The  Lord  into  his  garden  comes, 
The  spices  yield  a  rich  perfume, 

l^e  lilies  grow  and  thrive  ; 
Refreshing  showers  of  grace  divine, 
From  Jesus,  How  to  every  vine, 

Which  make  the  dead  revive. 

Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  unto  night  ehoweth  knowledge. 
Birds  fly  in  the  air.  To  seek  God,  is  wisdom.  Thou  who  hast  been  a 
witness  of  the  fa(!t,  canst  state  it,  Henry  Claj'  was  an  eminent  orator. 
"When  I  brought  his  arms  to  Ciothar,  day  was  descending  in  the  West. 
Eliza  will  improve,  if  she  study.  Foolishness  is  bound  up  in  the  heart  of 
a  child.  Where  the  robber  concealed  his  stolen  treasures,  has  never  been 
ascertained.  That  j^ou  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this.  That  the 
earth  is  a  sphere,  is  easily  proved.  The  day  having  closed,  both  armies 
rctin-ned  to  theiz'  camps.  That  no  man  is  justified  by  the  lavv  in  the 
sight  of  God,  is  evident.  Wo  stootl  upon  the  ground  where  the  battle  was 
fought.  How  wc  shall  obtain  means,  is  a  question  which  has  not  been 
satisfactorily  answered.  My  son,  give  me  thy  heart..  When  we  are  sutfer- 
ing  puiii,  how  slowly  the  hours  pass  away  !  Flowers  grow  in  the  garden, 
and  grass,  in  the  field.  Godsaid,  "I  t'lke  no  pleasure  in  the  death  of  the 
wicked." 


CHAPTER    VI. 

CONSTRUCTION    OP    ELEMENTS. 

§  1.  Substantive  elements  enter  into  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences in  three  relations,  namely — subject,  possessor,  and  object. 
(The  constructiun  of  the  subject  and  predicate,  has  already  been 
discussed.) 

The  pos.se.ssivc  clement  is  always  construed  before  the  word  which  it 
limits;  as,  John's  book."     "///s  hat."     The  objective  elemerfl,  in  the  uat- 


34  ANALYTICAL,    ILLL  .->1kai  !\  r.     ..no 

ural  order  of  ccnstruction,  is  construed  after  tl'f  verbal  element  which  it 
limits ;  as,  "I  met  him  in  the  street."  But  this  nrder  is  frequently  in- 
Terted;  as  '■'■  Ilim  that  is  weak  in  the  faith,  receive  ye." 

Rkm.  1. — A  a  English  nouns  havo  no  hiflection  fn  diftiiiguish  the  nommative  from 
the  objecti-ve.  care  inust^be  lakm  to  jireverit,  .'iin^iuuitj  in  Ihbir  coDStruition.  The 
following  senti'ni-.oe  are  auibiguous.  "  l'jrrbi)s  the  Kom:i7i8  shall  conquer."  "  A 
second  deluge  learning  thus  o'erran."  In  the  first  scri'ence  it  is  not  certain  wheth- 
er Pynhus  shall  conquer  the  Romans,  or  tuo  Uoujiti.?  l*yrrbu»j.  The  ainbigaity  in 
such  sentences  iu«y  easily  be  prevented  >  y  consttuinjf  the  objectt-vc  elctoout  after  the 
word  which  it  limiis.     Ihuo,   "  A  eecoud  deluge  thus  o'erri^n  learning." 

§  2.  Adjective  elements  of  any  kind  are  construed  with  sub- 
stantive elements.  Specifying  adjectives,  including  drticles, 
are  generally  construed  l)cf©re  substuntive  elements  ;  as,  "  The 
man.  That  man."  This  rule>  however,  is  not  invariable  ;  as, 
"  Miserable  comforters  are  you  a//" 

"When  a  .^specifying  cand  a  qualifying  adjective  are  both  used,  the  specify- 
ing adjective  is  generally  placed  first  in  the  oidcr  of  construction  ;  as, 
"  Those  tall  treeg." 

Rkm.  1. — When  EUfh  spocifyinp  adjcrtivc,^  jis  tin-  d.rind  from  i)roper  names  ar» 
coMstruod  with  qualifying  ndjectiros,  the  qualifying  iidjociive  is  placed  fir^tin  the 
order  of  conijtruction;  as,  "  llenry  Claj,  the  great  Aincrican  orator,  is  numbered 
with  the  dead." 

Rkm.  2  —  When  the  elements  all  and  the  are  construed  with  the  same  subgtantiv© 
clement,  all  is  placed  first;  as,  "  All  the  men  w»ro  there.** 

I 

When  an  adjective  elerncnt  of  the  first  class  is'  a.ssumed  o(  the  subject, 
.  ■  some  other  substantive*  element,  it  is  penerally    construed  before  it;  as, 

A  havdisomc  lady  ;"  but  when  it  is  predicated  of  the  subject,  it  is  general- 
ly construed  aiter'it;  as,  "That  lady  is  hmKhomeV  If,  however,  the  ad- 
jective is  emphatic,  it  is  construed  before  the  subject;  as,  "  Good  and  «p- 
/•/'//(Hs  the  Lord." 

Participles,  used  as  adjective  elements,  are  construed  after  the  substan- 
tive elements  to  which  they  refer ;  a.^  "  I  see  a  man  laborimj.'" 

Adjective  elemonls  of  the  isect)iid  and  ihird  classes  are  almost  invariably 
construed  after  the  elements  which  they  li^iii ;  as,  "The  fear  of  the 
Lord.'^     "  The  man  iclio  is  indastrio^isy 

j^fjj.  ). In  order  to  jyevcnt  ambiguity,  the  rolative  claupe  .«bould  be^corstrued 

as  near  to  the  word  which  it  limits  as  potsible.  When  the  relative  is  the  subject  of 
its  own  clause,  it  is  placed  first  in  the  order  of  construction  ;  as,  "  The  boy  who 
learns  his  lesson."  When  lb*  relative  is  thd  wotjeit  of  the  verb,  it  is  also  placed 
first  and  the  tubject  of  the  clause  is  construed  between  it  and  the  verb  ;  as,  "  The 
hoy' whom  I  instructed  learns  well."  liut,  if  the  relaiive  is  governed  by  a  preposi- 
tion, it  is  more  elegant  to  construe  the  prepcsitiou  before  it ;  a*,  "  I  saw  the  lady 
icrt/t  ic/io)7J  jou  walked."  The  relative  that,  however,  does  not  admit  of  such  a 
construction  ;  hence,  we  must  say,  "  I  saw  the  lady  that  you  walked  with.'.' 

Hem.  2. — Specifying  adjective*  limit  nouns,  but  do  n.t  express  quality;  as, "  That 
tree."  Qualiiying  adjectives  both  limit  nouns  and  f  xpress  some  ^aa/t/y  belonging 
to  tbem  :  r.s,  ""That  tree  is  tall."  Tali  not  ooly  exprrssej  the  quality  of  tree,  but 
it  also  so  limits  it  fl  at  the  tree  can  nut  belong  to  any  clai.s  of  trees  that  aie  low. 
(See  Adject!  res.) 

§  ;'.  Adverbial  elements  are  .constriK  \erbnl  elements 

eiiuor  dirccrly  or  indirectly.  Pirectly  ;  a  .  '  •  !e  hibvrs  faith- 
fully.''   Ii^irectly ;  as,   "He  labors  very  faithfully.''      Very 


C  ON-STRCCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  35 

modifies  tke  predicate  labors  indirectly  through  the  medium  of 
the  element  fa  it  hfuU I)' . 

No  precise  rules  can  be  given  for  the  construction  of  adverbial  elements 
of  the  first  kincl.  The  best  rule  that  crin  be  given  is,  to  so  construe. them 
as  will  best  jiroraote  the  euphony  and  perspicuity  of  the  sentence. 

AdVorbial  elements  of  the  second  and  third  kinds  aregeneraHy  construed 
after  the  predicate,  or  bet  ween  its  parts,  when  it  consists  of  two  words  ;  as, 
"Man's  happiness  or  misery  is,  in  a  great  measure,  placed  in  Ills  oion 
hanJsy     "  We  had  heard  the  news  he/ore  the  messenger  arrived.'''' 

P. KM.  1  — This  order  is  frequently  inverted  ;  as,  '•  In  tho  days  of  Jorara,  kiug  of 
Israel,  iloarished  Elisha  the  prophet." 

ABRIDGEMENT   OF    ELEMENTS. 

§  4.  Tho  abridgement  of  elements  consists  in  reducing  a  com- 
plex element  to  a  simple  one,  or  the  changing  of  an  element  of 
the  second  kind  to  one  of  the  first  kind,  and  a  changin:;  of  an 
element  of  the  third  kind,  to  one  of  the  first  or  second  kind  ;  as, 
"  A  gentleman  of  J^nijlaiid  " — (changed)  an  EnglUh  gentle- 
map.  "  A  la^y  of  ^7yicric?a  " — an  American  lady,  "  A  man 
who  is  hanest  Svill  be  relied  upon,  trusted  and  esteemed  " — 
(changed  to  an  element  of  the  second  kind)  A  man  of  lionesty 
.will  be  relied  upon,  etc.     An  honest  man. 

j'xAJirLEs  Koit  Practice. 

A  horse  ot  Arabia.  A  man  of  industry.  The  house  of  my  friend — 
<(my  friend's  house.)  A  lady  who  is  prudent  will  be  vespcnted.  The  man 
who  i.s  industrious  will  gain  a  competency.  He  who  studies  will  iTijj-.rove. 
He  is  a  jnan  of  wealth.  The  law  ol  the  Lord  is  perfect.  Tlic  way  of 
transgressors  is  hard.  He  is  in  a  me;;sure  recovered.  The  young  b.dies 
whom  I  instructed.  Ho  found  the  kiiife  which  was  lost.  The  day  oi"  bat- 
tle is  at  hand — (abridged)  The  bat'leday  is  near.  Tiic  ■■i-c"  <••'  ♦i-  t  -i 
•came  down.     The  end  of  alllhings  is  at  hand. 

Rem.  1. — When' the  relative  c)au.se  rontjiins  an  adji^etive,  it  can  bo  chanji^en  in  an 
element  of  the  second  el.-i-s.s  by  the  use  of  a  nnun  of  kindred  weaning  ami  jinipoFi- 
tion,  and  to  one  of  the_^rsS  elnss  by  ns.'^uniinjr  tho  .'idjectivc  of  the  elenieni,  v.  h  •  !i 
the  clau.se  limits;  as,  ••  K\n.<\y  wlio  is 'prudent  " — (changed)  A  lady  of  pmidairc-  •» 
prudent  lady.  When  the  robUive  clause  contains  no  adjective,  and  the  refativf  -i 
a  .subject  ot  its  own  ol.iuse,  it  is  abrids^ei  by  usinj^  the  iinporfnct  paMi-iplo  in  i  '< 
stead;  as,  "  The  boy  who  studies-  will  karn" — (changed)  Tho  boy  studying,  wi'l 
learn.  But,  if  the  relative  ii<  the  object  of  tho  verb  of  its  own  clause,  it  is  abri  '  ; 
by  tho  u.oe  of  the  perfect  participle;  a.«,  "  The  boy  tvham  I  instruchd,  improve^  '  - 
(abridj;;od)  The  boy  instrudrd  by  me,  iiQf)rovo?. 

Rem.  2. — As  thepovvor  to  a^jfidL")  eleinenrs  is  of  ffrcai  practical  imp'Ttanco  to  all 
"who  aspire  to  high  lingual  aitgimncnts.  tluse  exercises  should  not  \)<-  patsod  over 
slightly,  but  closdy  studied  till  mastered.  Tho  teacher' can  easily  stipply  other 
e  samples. 


36  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE     AND 

CHAPTER    yiT. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES    INTO    CL  A.tTS.ESAND  PHR  AS  E  S  . 

§  1.  Clauses  of  Sentences  may  be  divided  into  throe  kindsy 
viz.,  the  leaditig,  the  co-ordinate,  and  the  subordinate,  or  mod- 
ifying clause. 

Tiie  leading  clause  contains  the  principal  subject  and  predi- 
cate, and  in  the  natural  order  of  English  construction,  stands 
first  in  the  sentence.  This  order  is  however  frequently  trans- 
posed— the  modifying  clause  occupying  the  iirst  place. 

The  co-ordiuate  claiuse  asserts  an  additional  fact  which  may 
be  expressed  by  an  independent  sentence. 

The  subordinate  or  modifying  clause  modifies  some  other 
element  of  the  sentence  and  is  generally  an  adverbial  or  ad- 
jective element. 

A  phrase  is  distinguished  from  a  clause  by  its  having  neither 
subject  nor  predicate  ;   consequently  containing  no  affirmation. 

f^Y.M.  1. Tho  term  member,  in  this  work,  is  indiscriminately  applied  both  to  claufes 

and  phrases. 

11i;m.  2. — Mr-  James  Brown  calls  this  kind  of  analysis  Monology.  (See  Ameri- 
can Syntitbolojry  by  Jas.  Brown.) 

j^K^j.  3. This  kind   of  analysis  is  important,  since   it   constitutes  the   basis  of  a 

rcular  and  thorough  construction  of  sentences. 

§  2.  The  words  which  give  new  members  may  be  called  con- 
nectives or  memh^r-givers.  These  member-givers  or  connectives 
may  be  divided  into  two  classe",  viz.,  coordinate  and  subordinate. 

The  co-ordinate  unite  members  of  equal  rank  in  construction. 
They  areawci,  hut^  or,  nor,  yet,  and  though,  used  in  the  sense  of 
but  or  vet'.  The  subordinates  are  such  as  join  members  or 
elements  of  subordinate  rank  in  construction  ;  they  are  too  nu- 
merous to  give  a  full  list ;  the  following  are  a  few,  viz.,  as,  be- 
cause, if,  ^«*^  since,  when,  who,  which,  in,  into,  under,  over^ 
above,  beneath,  &c.  • 

Model. 

1 
[True  cheerfulness  makes  a  man  happy]  (in  himself,)  (and  promotes  the 
12  3 

happiness)  (of  all)  (who  are)  (around  him.) 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  words  contained  in  each  member  of  the 
above  sentence  have  an  inseparable  constructive  relation  to  each  other,  and^. 
in  parsing,  must  be  disposed  of  in  their  own  membera  respectively. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  37 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

CON3TKUCTION  OF  SENTENCES. 

r 

Rbh.  — Because  of  the  striking  resemblance  between  the  Construction  of  the 
several  parts  of  a  sentence  and  the  frame-work  of  a  tree,  Mr.  James  Brown  denomi- 
nates such  construction  Dendrology. 

§  1.  In  order  to  realise  all  the  advantages  arising  from  the 
Construction  of  sentences  as  illustrated  by  the  frame-work  of  a 
tree,  we  should  have  respect  to  the  order,  notation,  integritj/y 
rank,  B,nA  position  of  elements  of  the  second  and  third  kinds. 

§  2.  There  are  two  orders — Trunk  and  Branch. 

A  member  of  the  Trunk  •rder  must  contain  the  subject  and  predicate 
and  all  elements  of  the  jirst  kind  which  modify  them  or  that  member  of 
the  sentence  which  can  stand  alone  or  make  sense  independent  of  the  other 
parts. 

A  member  of  the  branch  order  depends  upon  the  trunk  member  in  con- 
struction, or  upon  some  other  branch  member,  with  which  it  has  an  insep< 
arable,  constructive  relation. 

§  3.  Notation,  from  the  Latin  notatio,  a  mark,  respects  the 
actual  expression  of  all  or  only  a  part  of  the  words  of  a  member. 

There  are  two  Notations — Plenary  and  Implenary. 

A  member  is  of  the  plenary  notation,  when  all  the  words  belonging  to  it 
are  written. 

A  member  is  of  the  implenary  notation,  when  some  of  the  words  which 
belong  to  it  are  not  written. 

§  4.  Integrity,  from  the  Latin  integritas,  an  unbroken  state 
of  members,  respects  itsentireness  or  unbroken  state.  There 
are  two  Integrities — Perfect  and  Imperfect. 

» 

The  Perfect  Integrity  is  the  entireness  produced  by  the  juxta-position 
of  all  its  words ;  as,   "[He  gave  an  apple]  (to  me.)" 

A  member  is  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity  when  it  is  broken  by  the  inter- 
vention of  some  other  member;  as,  [He  gave  (to  me)  an  apple.] 

§  6.  Rank  of  members  is  the  frame>-work  grade  which  the 
subs  derive  from  their  supers.  The  number  of  Ranks  may  be 
said  to  be  indefinite — some  sentences  having  more  and  some  less. 

A  member  is  of  the  first  rank  when  it  is  construed  with  the  trunk  for  its 
super,  of  the  second  rank  when  it  reads  with  a  member  of  the  first  rank,  of 
the  third,  when  with  one  of  the  second,  and  of  the  fourth  when  with  one 
of  the  third,  and  so  on. 

§  6.  The  position  of  a  member  respects  the  place  which  it 
occupies  in  relation  to  its  super  or  supers. 

The  positions  are  juxta,  disjuxta,  and  binal. 


38 


ANALYTICAL,  CONSTRUCTIVE    AND 


A  member  is  of  the  juxta  position  when  it  is  placed -next  to  its  super  in 
the  order  of  construction. 

A  member  is  of  the  disjuxta  position  when  it  is  separated  from  its  super. 
The  binal  position  includes  both  the  juxta  and  disjuxta  positions. 

1  1 

Rem.  1. — "  [^heat  grows]  (in  the  field,)  (and  men  reap  it.)"  In  this  sentence,  in 
the.  field  ia  of  tho,;wa:<a  position, because  placed  next  to  its  super.  Men  reap  it  has 
the  same  super,  wheat  grows  ;  but  it  is  separated  from  its  super  ;  it  is,  therefore, 
disjuxta  position.     Wheat  grows  and  men  reap. 

1 
Reh.  2. — "  [Peter  wa»  the  brother]  (of  Andrew,)  (but  he  was   not   the  brotlfer) 
3 
(of  John  )"     In  this  sentence,  huChe  leas',  not  tTie  brother,  depenls  upon  two  mem- 
bers for  its  supers,  in  order  to  complete  the  senpe.     It  is  disjuxta  in  r6«pect  to  the 
trunk,  juxta  in  respect  to  the  branch  ;  then   it  is  binal  posiiion  ;*  since  it  includes 
both  the  juxta  and  dirjuxta  positions. 
I 

§  7.  A  super  is  that  member  which,  in  rank,  is  directly  abovo 
that  member  ■which  is  annexed  to  it. 

A  sub  is  that  member  -which,  in  rank,  is  directly  below  that 
member  to  which  it  is  annexed. 


Fia.  1. 


In  Construction,  the  verbal  frame-work 
of  a  sentence  is  illustrated  by  the  frame- 
work of  a  tree,  (Fig.  1,)  as  in  the  follow- 
ing sentence : 

1  1 

[A  certain  Emperor  (of  China),  (on  his  acces. 
2  3 

eion)  (to  the  throne)  (of  his  auceetors),  command- 

1  2 

ed  a  general  release]   (of  all  those)  (who  had 

3 
been  imprisoned)  (for  debt.) 

A  certain  Emj^eror  commanded  a  gen- 
eral release^  is  a  member  of  the  trunk 
order,  plenary  notation,  imperfect  integ- 
^  ritj,  and  of  the  affirmative  kind,  because 
it  expresses  the  highest  degree  of  verbal 
force.  Of  China,  is  a  member  of  the 
branch  order,  plenary  notation,  perject 
integrity,  first  rank,  juxta  position,  and 
super  ;  thus,  A  certain  Emperor  q/'  China 
On  his  accession  is  a  member  of  the  branch 
order,  plenary  notation,  perfect  integrity,  tirst  rank,  disjuxta  2'osition,  and 
reads  with  the  trunk  ibr  its  super.  A  certain  Emperor  commanded  a  gen- 
eral release  on  h  is  accession.  To  the  throne,  is  a  member  of  the  branch 
order,  plenary  notation,  perfect  integrity,  seeond  rank,  juxta  position,  and 
reads  with  a  member  of  the  first  rank  for  its  super.  On  his  accession  to 
the  throne.  Of  his  ancestors,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  plenary 
notation,  perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  juxta  position,  and  reads  with 
the  second  rack  for  its  super.  To  the  throne  of  his  ancestors.  Of  all 
those  persons,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  notation,  perfect 
integrity,  first  rank,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  for  its  super. 
A  certain  Emperor  commanded  a  general  release  of  all  those  persons.     Who 


reads  with  the  trunk  for  its 
commanded  a  general  release. 


♦See  American  Syntithology,  by  Jamea  Brown. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.*  39 

had  ieen  impriso7ied,  is  a  member  orthe  branch  order,  plenary  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  second  rank,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  a  member  of 
the  first  rank  for  its  super.  Of  all  those  who  had  been,  imprisoned. 
For  debt,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  plenary  notiiliun,  perfect  integ- 
rity, third  rank,  and  juxla  position,  and  reads  with  the  second  rank  for  its 
sup&r.     Who  had  been  imprisoned /(??•  debt. 

By  inspecting  the  Diagram,  the  learner  will  perceive  that  branches  No,l 
depend  directly  upon  the  trunk  or  leading  clause,  that  branches  No.  2  de- 
pend directly  upon  No.  1,  and  that  those  of  No.  8  depend  directly  upon 
No.  2,  but  that  all  depend  directly  or  indirectly  upon  the  trunk  or  leadmg 
member. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

XLLIQATION    OF    SENTENCES. 

§  1.  Alligation,  from  the  Latin  Alligo,  to  bind,  is  the  art 
of  binding  together  the  component  parts  of  a  sentence  by  lines 
which  indicate  the  government,  relation  and  connection  of  the 
several  parts. 

Lines  which  indicate  government  are  drawn  ©ver ;  all  others  are  drawn 
under,  as  in  the  toUowing  diagram  : 

Fio.  2. 


Line  1  shows  Henry  governs  ircnt,  and  reads  with  it — Henry  went.  Linfe' 
2  shows  xcith  conn&cts  went  and  me,  and  reads  with  them— went  with  me. 
Line  3  shews  that  with  governs  me,  and  reads  with  it — with  me.  Line  4 
shows  that  to  connects  tccnt  and  shij>,  and  reads  wijh  them— went  to  shii^. 
Line  5  shows  «o  governs  .s^/jy,  and  reads  with  it— went  to  ship.  Line  & 
shows  that  the  belongs  to  .s7(?>,  and  reads  with  it— the  ship. 

The  object  of  this  exercise  is  not  only  to  give  an  ocular  illustration  of 
the  varioiis  grammatical  connections  and  relations  which  words  bear  to  each 
other  in  a  sentence,  but  also  to  show  that  words  which  are  grammatically 
related  to  each  other  make  sense  when  read  together. 

Rem.  1.— When  any  word  has  a  gTainmatical  connection  with  but  one  o'ft-^r  word 
m  a  sentence,  it  may  be  called  ^mi  idio&i  i>eculiar  to  one  ;  as,  Henry  and  the  in  the 
above  example.  But,  when  a  word  is  grammatically  related  to  more  words  than 
one,  it  is  plus  idios,  peculiar  to  more  than  one ;  as  with,  to,  Ac. 

Rem.  2.— As  pupils  are  generally  prone  to  fall  into  a  mere  mechanical  mode  "f 
parsing  irrespective  of  the  sense,  exercises  in  Alligation  shoulJ  bo  continued  tiil 
the  h.abit  is  formed  of  testing  every  word  by  its  grammatical  relation  or  relations 
to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  For  this  purpose,  such  sentences  .should  be  writt<  n 
upon  the  blackboard  or  slate  as  can    be  written  iu  one   line.     Then  let  th*  pupi« 


40  AI^ALYTICAL   ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

conn&ct  the  words  as  exhibited  in  the  above  example,  and  read  them  in  their  res- 
pective relutioDE,  before  parsing  the  sentence. 

Examples  f#r  Practice. 

The  hours  of  the  day  glide  swiftly  away.  The  old  fox  heard  thelianter'a 
horn  sounding.  They  rode  into  the  country.  John  has  gone  with  his 
sister  to  town.  The  Roman  women  ence  bestowed  their  precious  jewels  to 
save  the  city.  I  see  a  man  walking  through  the  fields.  The  sun  shines 
upon  all  men.  Pharaoh  pursued  the  children  of  Israel.  The  earth  re- 
volves on  its  own  axis.  Flowers  bloom  in  the  spring.  Jesus  went  into 
Galilee.    Birds  fly  into  the  air.     Fishes  swim  in  the  sea. 


CHAPTER    X. 

SYSTEMATIC    ORDEK    OF    PARSING. 

§  1 .  As  parsing  is  intended  to  accompany  Construction  and 
'  Alligation,  before  giving  the  regular  models  of  Construction, 
the  following  examples  are  presented  as  models  for  parsing  : 

"  [The  man  {who  instructs  you,)  labors  faithfully^' 

The  is  a  definite  arficlc,  and  belongs  to  the  noun  man,  according  to  Rule 
14.  Man  is  a  common  noun,  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  labors,  according  to  Rule  1. 
Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, and  agrees  with  man  for  its  antecedent,  according  to  Rule  12,  and  in 
the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  instructs,  according  to  Rule  1.  Instructs 
is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  active  voice,*  indicative  mode,  present  tense, 
and  of  the  third  person,  singular,  because  its  nominative  tcho  is,  according 
to  Rule  6.  You  is  a  personal  pronoun,  second  person,  plural  number,  and 
in  the  objectiyo  case,  and  governed  by  the  verb  instructs,  according  to 
Rule  1 9.  Labors  is  a  regular,  intransitive  verb,  indicative  mode,  present 
tense,  third  person,  singular,  because  its  nominative  man  is,  according  to 
Rule  6.     Faithfully  is  an  adverb  and  modifies  labors,  according  to  Rule  25. 

"  iTarnes  took  what  he  wanted.'^ 

What,'m  such  constructions  as  the  above,  is  generally  parsed  as  a  com- 
pound relative  pronoun — equivalent  to  that  which  or  the  thing  which  ;  but 
whether  resolving  it  into  two  other  words  and  excluding  what  from  the 
sentence  is  really  parsing  what,  is  a  question  for  grammarians  to  decide. 
By  rendering  the  sentence  plenary,  it  will  be  clearly  seen  that  what  is  sim- 
ply a  specifying  adjective  ;  thus,  Janoes  took  what  thing  it  was  which  he 
wanted. 

"  /  saw  a  man  leading  his  horse  over  the  yiew  bridged 

Leading  is  an  imperfect  participle,  derived  from  the  verb  to  had,  and 
refers  to  the  noun  man,  according  to  rule  18.  Over  is  a  preposition,  and 
connects  leading  and  bridge,  and  shows  the  relation  between  them.  New 
is  a  qualifying  adjective,  in  the  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  bridge,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  15. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  41 

"  James,  I  desire  yon.  to  study T 

James  is  a  proper  noun,  IlK^^culine  gender,  second  person,  singular,  and 
in  the  nominative  case  indufietident,  according  to  Rule  27.  To  study  is  a 
regular,  transitire  verb,  active  voice,  infinitive  mode,  present  tense,  and  is 
governed  by  you,  according  to  Rule  5. 

"  /  heinr/  in  great  haste,  he  consented.'''' 

/is  a  personal  pronoun,  first  person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  nomi- 
natir*  case  absolute,  according  to  Rule  28. 


CHAPTER    XI 


DIRECTIONS    FOR    RENDERING    SENTENCES    PLENARY. 

§  1.  Men,  in  their  intercoursQ  with  each  other,  and  more  es- 
pecially in  the  business  transactions  of  life,  are  wont  to  utter 
their  sentiments,  both  in  speaking  :ind  writing,  as  concisely  as 
possible;  hence  many  words  are  omitted  or  not  expressed,  which 
must  be  supplied  in  construction  and  parsing  in  order  to  un- 
derstand the  full  import  of  the  sentence,  and  to  enable  the 
learner  to  parse  correctly  those  words  which  are  expressed. 

The  leading  clause  of  a  sentence  is  generally  plenary  or  full,  imperative 
and  petitionative  sentences  generJiUy  excepted;  the  subordinate  cl.mse  is 
also  generally  plenary,  so  far  as  it  respects  its  subject  and  predicate  ;  since 
it  must  have  a  subject  and  predicate  of  its  own ;  but  a  co-ordinate  clause  is 
frequently  implenary ;  since  the  same  subject  or  predicate,  used  in  tho 
leading  clause,  may  be  continued  in  a  co-orninate  clause.  If  a  new  gubject 
or  predicate  is  to  be  introduced  in  a  co-ordidinate  clause,  the  writer  or 
speaker  is  bound  to  express  it  ;"  for  such  new  subject  or  predicate  can  not 
be  ascertained  by  any  law  of  construction  whatever.  Then,  if  either  the 
subject  or  predicate,  or  both,  be  omitted  in  a  co-ordinate  or  subsequent 
clause,  they  miiat  be  supplied  from  the  leading  clause,  with  no  alteration, 
except  a  pronoW  should  be  used  instead  of  a  noun.  In  the  following  sen- 
tences, the  svl)jcct  is  understood  in  the  first,  the  predicate  in  the  second, 
and  both  predicate  and  siilject  in  the  third.  (1).  "  A  certain  man  planted 
a  vineyard,  and  set  a  hedge'ahout  it  "—(rendered  plenary.  A  certain  man 
planted  a  vineyard,  and  he  set  a  hedge  nbout  it.  (2).  "These  shall  go  away 
into  everlasting  punishment;  but  tiie  righteous  into  life  eternal  "—(ren- 
dered plenary)  but  the  righteous  t<hnU  <jo  into  life  eternal.  (3).  "  Man  shall 
not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by  every  word  that  proceedeth  out  of  the 
mouth  of  God  "—(rendered  plenary)  but  he  fthall  lire,  etc. 

If  a  subordinate  clause  is  compound,  it  follows  the  same  rule ;  as,  "  He, 
who,  every  morning,  plans  the  transactions  of  the  day,  and  follows  out 
that  plan,  {i.  e„  who  follows,  etc.,)  carries  on  a  thread,"  etc.  Those  mem- 
bers  which  contain  nouns,  used  adverbially,  such  as  tivie,  dimemion,  val- 
uation, home,  etc.,  are  generally  implenary,  having  some  preposition  under- 
stood ;  as,  " He  went  home,"  i.  e.,  to  home.     "She  walks  every  morning," 


42  ANALYTICAL,  ILEOSTBATrVE    AND" 

w    i.  e,,  on  every  morning.     "His  hat  is  worth  a  dollar,"  i.  e.,  t?/"  a -dollar,  etc. 
(See  Peculiar  Construction.) 

When  an  indirect  object  of  a  verb  is  placed  first  in  tlie  order  of  construc- 
tion, the  member  containing  it  is  generally  implenary  ;  as.  "  He  sent  me  .1 
book,"  i.  e„  He  sent  a  book  to  me.  "My  father  bought  me  a  horse,"  i.  e.,. 
He  bought  a  hovse/o7'  me.  As  the  preposition  through  implies  something 
of  the  nature  of  a  medium,  through  which  something  is  transmitted,  its 
antecedent  term,  though  often  suppre.ssed,  is  generally  a  verb  or  participle^ 
and  should  be  supplied  in  construing;  as,  "  The  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life 
through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ" — (rendered  plenary)  The  gift  of  God  i» 
eternal  life  which  cometh  through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  Again :  "  By 
grace  are  ye  saved  through  faith,"  i.  e..  Ye  are  saved  by  grace  wliich  cometh' 
through  faith. 

The  limits  of  this  work  will  not  allow  us  to  presecute  this  subject  fur- 
ther;  it  is  hoped,  however,  that  enough  has  been  said  to  enable  the  philo-" 
Sophie  student'  to  prosecute  it  with  success. 

Models  fo»  Constrvction. 

1  13 

Model  yst.  [Day  (unto  day)  uttereth  speech],  (and  night  (unto  night), 
showeth  knowledge).  » 

This  sentence  is  compound,  because  it  contains  a  co-ordinate  clause,  uni- 
ted by  a  co-ordinate  connective.  A  comma  is  inserted  at  the  end  of  the- 
first  clause,  it  being  the  place  of  constructive  contact  between  the  members, 
according  to  Rule  11th.     (See  Punctuation.) 

Day  uttereth  speech,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  plenary  notation, 
imperfect  integrity,  and  of  the*  affirmative  kind,  because  it  expiess^s  the 
highest  degree  of  verbal  force.  Unto  day  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,, 
plenary  notation,  perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  juxta  position,  and  reads 
wkh  ihe  trunk  for  its  super  ;  day  uttereth  speech  unto  day.  A7ul  night 
»howeth  Icnoteledge,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  plenary  notation, 
imperfect  integrity,  first  rank,  jtixta  position,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  foiv 
its  super;  day  uttereth  speech,  and  niglit  showeth  knowledge.  UntonightA 
is  a  member  uf  the  branch  order,  plenary  notation,  perfect  integrity,  second 
rank,,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  a  branch  of  the  first  rank  for  its  super  ;, 
And  night  showeth  knowledge  unto  night.  The  true  .sense  reading.  Day 
uttsrath  speech  unto  day,  and  night  showeth  knowledge  unto  night. 

Exercises. 

1  1  ^      ^ 

[Dagon'  fell]'(upon  his  face)  (before  the  ark)   fof  God).*[There  was  a 
1  2  1 

marriage];  (in  Cana)  (of  Galilee).      [There  the    fJower  (of  the  mountain)-, 

1  2        .  1 

growsT,  (and  shakes  its  white   head)  (in   the   breeze).     [The  beams  (of  the 

1  2 

sun)  rest])  (on  the  grave)  (where  her   beauty   sleeps)i     [The  man  (who  in- 

1  2 

structed  me)  (in  grammar),  labors 'faithfully].     [The  President  resides]  (i» 

1  2  1 

the   city)   (lof   Richmond.)     [Flowers  bloom];  (in   the  spiing,)  (and  fruit 

1  '2  1 

trees  bear  fruit)  (in  the  summer).     [The  sun  shines]  (upon  all  men)  who- 

2  3  4  5 

will  receive  feia  rays)   (which  he  sends)    (from   the  h'cavens)  (which  are), 

6 
(above  us). 


CONSTRtTCTIVE    GRAMMAR, 


43 


Mo'del  2d.  I  Alexander,  king  (cf  Macedon),  conquered  Darius]  ^(w^o  was 

1  2 

the  last  king)  (of  the  Persian  dynasty.)  ^    .  *     . 

This  is  a  complex  sentence,  because,  &c.  (See  the  analysis  of  the  above 
sentence).  Alexander  ling  conquered  Darius,  #s  a  member  of  the  trunk 
•order,  plenary  notation,  imperfect  integrity,  and  of  the  affirmative  kind, 
because,  &c.     (See  Model  1st). 

Kem.  1.— The  case  in  apposition  must  always  be  construed  in  the  same  member 
■with  the  word  which  it  identifies. 

Exercises. 

1  2 

[Cornelius,  the  Roman  centurion,  sent]  (for  Peter  the  apostle),  (who  was 

living)  (with  Simon  the  tanner.)  (In  the  days)  (of  Joram^  king)  (of 
Israel),  [flourished  Elisha  'the  prophet]  [General  Washington,  the  dis- 
'tinguished  leader  (of  the  armies)  (of  the  united  colonies),  was  a  man]  (of 

1  12 

great  prudence).     [Elijah  the  prophet  lived]  (in  the  days)  (of  Ahab,  king) 

3  ^ 

(of  Israel.)  [John,  the  student,  has  returned]  (from  college).  Bonaparte, 
the  Emperor  (of  the  French),  lost  the  battle]  (of  Waterloo).  [Catherine, 
queen  (of  Russia),  built  an  ice  palace];   (but,  (when  summer  returned),  it 

2  2  3 

dissolved)  (into  water),  (and  disappeared)  (like  the  morning  cloud).  [Herod, 

1  1 

king  (of  Judea),  sought  to  destroy  the  babe]  (of  Bethlehem). 

Rem.  1.— As  the  infinitive  mode  can  not  give  a  new  member,  it  must  be  cociBtrued 
dn  the  same  member  with  the  word  on  which  it  depends. 

Model  3i.  (The  rain  having  ceased),  £the  dark  clouds  rolled  away],  (and 
1 
;a  calm  ensued.) 

The  darh  clouds  rolled  away,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  &c.  (See 
Model  1st.)  The  rain  having  ceased,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order, 
plenary  notation,  perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  for 
its  super ;  the  dark  clouds  rolled  away,  the  rain  having  ceased.  And  a 
calm  ensued,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  &4. 

Rem.  1.— Ai  the  case.  dftsoZute  with  the  participle  depending  upon  it,  is  nearly 
equivalent  to  a  subordinate  clause,  it  is  regarded  as  a  member  of  the  branch  order 
in  construction  ;  as,  "  The  dark  clouds  rolled  away  whtn  the  rain  had  ccasnd." 

Rem.  2.— As  the  case  independent  and  interjections  are  not  elements  of  a  sen- 
tence, they  can  have  no  constructive  relafton  to  ntber  elements;  hence  they  are 
called  indtpendcnt  members.  If  the  case  independent  is  modified  by  an  adjunct, 
both  must  be  included  as  one  member  ;  as,  "John  of  Richmond,  come  forth."  John 
of  Richmond,  is  an  indaiiendent  member ;  as  it  has  no  constructive  relation  to  the 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

Exercises. 

1  2  ^'^^• 

(I  being]r(in  great  haste),  [he  consented  to  finish  the  work.]     (Charles), 

1  1  * 

{you,  (by  yoifr  diligence),  have  made  easy  work]  (of  the  task  given)  ( ,  you) 
(by  your  preceptor.) 


44  ANALTTICAL,  ILLUfTRATIVE    AND 

Rem.  1. — A  comma  is  used  in  implenary  members,  in  the  place  of  the  noeton 
word  or  words  ;  as,  in  the  member  you  in  the  abovs,  it  shows  that  the  preposition  to 
is  understood — to  you. 

ind.  1 

(Alas!  [the  joys  (that,  fortune  brings), 

Are  trifling],  (and  decay.) 
1   -  19 

The  war  being  ended),  [peace   was  hailed]   (with  raptures)   (of  delight.) 

ind. 
(Young  ladies),  [you  must  study  your  lessons  more   diligently],  (if  you 

11  1 

wish  to  improve.)     (Herod  being  dead),  [Joseph  returned]  (with  the  y«ung 

12  1  2 

child)  (to  the  land)  (of  Judea.)     (The  day  having  been  spent)  (in  prepara- 

1 
tion),  [the  soldiers  returned]  (to  their  camps.] 

1 

Model  UTi.  "  [What  book  have  you  ]?    („  A  poem)." 

What  hoolc  have  you,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  plenary  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  and  of  theinterrog;itive  kind,  because  it  contains  a  ques- 
tion. I  have  apoem,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  for  its 
super.     "  What  book  have  you  ?    /  have  a  poem." 

Exercises. 
1 
[Is  there  no  balm]  (in  Gilead  ?)     [Who  is  this  uncircumcised  Philistine] 
1  s 

(that  he  should  defy  the  armies)  of  (the  living  God  ?)    [Shall  not  the  judge 

1  12 

(of  all  the  earth)  do  right  ?]     [Who  walked]  (with  you)  (to  the  church)  ? 

1  12 

(Eliza.)   [Why  is  not  the  health  (of  the  daughter)  (of  my  people  recovered  ?] 

[What  can  we  do  to  remedy  the  evil  ?]     (  „  Nothing.)     [Where  have  those 

1  2 

young  ladies  gon«  ?]     (,,)     (To  college.)     [Canst  thou  expect,  (thou  be- 

ind.  1 

trayer  of  innocence),  to  escape  the  hand]  (of  vengeance  ?) 

[Will  martial  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind,] 

1  2 

(And  Wilt  thou  never  be  (to  heaven)  resigned  ?) 

[Who  can  resolve  the  doubt] 

(That  tears  my  anxious  breast?) 
1  2 

(Shall  I  be  (with  the  damned)  cast  out,) 
3  3 

(Or  ,  ,  ,  numbered)  (with  the  blest  ?)  ^ 

1  '    1       • 

Model  5th.  "  [What,  (  ,  I  do)  thou  knowest  not  now]  ;  (but  thou  shalt 
know  hereafter)."  Thou  knowest  not  now  what  thing,  is  a  meipber  of  the 
trunk  order,  implenary  notation,  imperfect  integrity,  and  of  the  affirmative 
kind.  Which  I  do,  is  a  member  of  4he  brano'i  order,  impl-i-nary  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  etc., — Thou  knowest  not  now  what  thing  which  I  do. 
But  thou  shalt  krww  her-eafter,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  etc. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  45 

The  true  sense   reading  is,  Thou  knowest  not  now  what  thing  which  I 
do ;  but  thou  shalt  know  hereafter. 

Rem.  I. — The  expression  it  is  or  they  are  in  puch  constructions,  would  improve 
the  euphony  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Tht>u  Icnowest  not  now  what  thing  it  is  iphich 
I  do,"  etc. ;  hut.  as  it  lends  no  aid  in  parsing,  it  may  bo  omitted  in  construction. 

Rem.  2. —  JVhat,  in  such  con.strnolicins,  may  be  parsed  as  a  spocifying  adjective, 
belonging  to  thing  or  things  understood,  or  as  a  substitute  for  tohat  tKing  or  things, 
as  the  sense  of  the  construction  demands. 

Rem.  .3. — Mr.  Butler,  an  eminent  grammarian,  considers  what,  in  such  construc- 
tions as  the  above,  a  relative  pronoun,  referring  to  thitiji  u.derstood  for  its  antece» 
dent,  thus — "  Thou  knowest  not  now  the  thing  what  I  do,"  etc.  This,  we  think,  is 
decidedly  better  than  the  common  way  of  disposing  of  it  by  calling  it  a  compound 
relative  pronoun. 

Rem.  •!.  — As  whatever  and  whichever  have  a  similar  construction  to  what,  they 
need  no  separate  model. 

Exercises. 
1  2 

[I  know  what,]  (  ,  he  .said)  (to  me.)      [The  monks  finished  what,]  ( ,  the 
1  -  1 

Goths  had  begun.)  [Eliza  may  take  whichever  pattern]  ( ,  pleases  her  best.) 

12  1 

[Whatever,  (  ,  is  true)  (in  science),  is  useful]  (in  the  arts.)     [I  have  heard 
12  3 

what,]  (  ,  was  alleged)  (on  both  sides)  (of  the  question.)     [Eat,  what]  (    is 

12  t.  1 

set)  (before  you.)     [We  should  carefully  cultivate  whatever,]  (  ,  is  lovely.) 

[Whatever,  ( ,  is,)  ,  is  right]     [Thou  knowest  not   what,]    (,  a  day  may 

bring  forth.)     [What,  (,  I  forfeit)    (for  myself ),  is  a  trifle] ;  (but  that  my 

1  2 

indiscretions  should  reach  my  posterity,  wounds  me)  (to  the  heart.) 

Rem  1. —  That  mij  indiscretions  should  reach  tiiy  posterity,  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  wounds,  acco.-ding  to  rule. 

1  2 

Model  Gth.   '"  (Whoever  will  l^e  a  friend)  (of  the  world),  [  ,  is  the  enemy] 

(of  God  ) 

He  /*  the  enemy  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  implenary  notation, 
perfect  integrity',  and  of  the  aflSrmative  kind,  etc. 

Bem  1. — As  the  antrcelent,  in  similar  cnnstruotioni:,  is  very  indefinite,  conse- 
quently easily  supplied,  it  is  genenil'y  ellipticAl,  »nd  is  gener.-tlly  thesul<ject  <f  the 
leading  clauF(>  or  trunk  meraoor.  The  person  ^it  any  person,  or  pimply  he,  is  gene- 
rally the  antpeeJent  in  fuch  cdn.otniotii.iig. 

Kem.  2. —  Whoso  and  whosoever  are  nearly  obsolete;  whoever  being  nend  in  their 
stead.  ,  ** 

Rem.  .3. —  Whosoever,  whoever,  otc,  are  generally  parsed  as  compound  rela.tive 
pronouns:  this,  however,  is  unnecessary;  the  antfcedcut  being  supplied,  they  may 
be  parsed  simply  as  relative  pronouns. 

E.TERCisrs. 
1  1 

(Whoever  takes  Uic  oath)  [ ,  is  "bound]  (by  the  law.)     (Whoever  lives  to 

see  this  republic  forsake  her  morn]  and  literary  in'-titution«)  [ ,  will  behold 

1 

her    lil.'.'rtle.--  prosti:*'..  •]  ]     OV!u.evi-r    i.jJ.Idiallv  violates  any  lau  »   (of  his 
2  ,  *  1 

physical  nature)  [  ,  may  expect  to  suffer  its  penalties.]    (Whosoever  will), 


46  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVfi     AND 

1 

[let ,  him,  take  the  water  (of  life),  freely.]     (Whoever  seeks  the  happiness) 

(of  others),    [ ,  will  generally  find   happiness]   (for  himself.)     (Whoever 

1  2 

studies  the  works  (of  nature)  attentively),  [  ,  will  be  convinced]  (of  their 

divine  origin.) 

1  1  — ' 

Model  7th.  "  [Qo  ye]  (into  all  the  world),  (and  preach  ,  my  gospel)  (unto 

every  cretture.)" 

Oo  ye  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  plenary  notation,  perfect  integrity, 
and  of  the  imperative  kind,  because  it  contains  a  command.  The  other 
members  are  construed  as  in  models  already  given, 

Rhjc.  1. — As  petitionary  sentences  direct  have  the  same  construction  as  the  impe- 
ralirt,  one  model  will  be  sufficient  for  both. 

Exercises. 

1  .  9      ^  3 

(Go,]  (»nd  sin,  no  more),  (lest  a  worse  thing,  come)  (unto  thee.)     [Give, 
1  1 

^  ,  us)  (  ,  this  dav)  our  daily  bread.]     [Obey  ,  them]   (that  have  the  rule) 

9  ind.  1 

(over  you.)     (Boys),  (^key,  ray  precepts],  [unless  you  wish  to  injure  your- 

•  1  1  2 

selvM.)     [Seek,  the  Lord],  (and  live.)     (Into  any  city)  (of  the  Gentiles), 

[tnter  ye  not.]   [Escape  ,]  (for  your  life.)    [Remember  now  thy  Creator]  (in 

the  days)  (of  thy  youth),  (while  the  evil  days  come  not.) 

[Remember ,  thy  Creator  now] ; 
2  1 

(For  him),  (thy  powers  employ) ; 
2  3  ' 

(Make  (  ,  him)  thy  fear,  thy  love,  thy  hope. 

Thy  confidence,  and  joy.) 

Rbk.  1. — The  pconoun  him,  being  the  material  of  which  the  nouns /ear,  love, 
hope,  etc-i  are  made,  is  governed  by  of  understood.  (See  Peculiar  Congtructions.) 
Some  gramnnarians,  however,  consider  Awra  in  the  objective,  governed  by  make,  and 
the  foUoiring  «ouns  in  the  objective  case  after  to  he  understood. 

Rbh.  2. — When  conjunctions  connect  words  only,  they  do  not  give  new  members. 

1  4 

Model  Bth.  [Let  us,  make  man]  (in  our  own  image.) 

Let  us  mal-e  man,  though  it  has  the  form  of  a  direct  petition,  yet  no  per- 
son seems  to  be  directly  addressed  ;  hence,  Dr.  Webster,  and  several  other 
eminent  philologists,  say  that  the  verb  let,  in  such  constructions,  is  in  the 
imperative  mode  without  a  nominative  specified  ;  hence,  in  such  construc- 
tions, no  nominative  need  be  supplied  ;  and  the  verb  may  be  thus  parsed: 
Let  is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  in  the  imperative  mode  without  a  nomi- 
native specified  ; — if  any,  however,  should  prefer  supplying  a  nominative, 
there  are  authorities  to  sustain  him. 

Rem.  I. — It  should  be  observed,  however,  that,  though  this  idiom  is  very  exten- 
Biv*  and  of  great  convenience,  yet,  in  some  sentences,  it  has  an  imperative  force; 
M,  "  Let  no  one  leave  of  it  till  morning." 


constructive  grammar.  47 

Exercises. 

1 

[Let  the  wicked,    forsake  his  way],    (and,  the  unrighteous  man  ,,  his 
1  Bi.  po8.  '     2  1 

thoughts) ;  (and  let  them  return)  (unto  our  God) ;  (for  he  will  abundantly 

1  1 

pardon.)     [Let  mc  ,  die  the  death]  (of  the  righteous),  (and  let  my  last  end 

3  1 

be)    (like   his.)     [Let  him  (that   stole),   steal   no   more.]     [Let   highborn 
seraphs  tune  the  lyre.] 

[Let  every  mortal  ear  attend,] 

(And  every  heart  rejoice:) 
1  S 

(The  trumpet  (of  the  gospel)  sounds) 
a 
(With  an  inviting  voice.) 

1 
[The  death  (of  the  rigjjteous)  let  me  die,] 

9  1 

(Like  his) ,  (my  last  end  be) ;  ' 

1  a 

(Then,  (far  beyond  this  changing  sky,) 
Let  me  his  glory  see.) 

Rkm.  1. — An  adverb  sometimes  modifies  a  phrase.  In  such  cases  the  adverb  must 
be  incUided  in  the  member  which  it  modifies  ;  for  every  word  must  be  dispoied  of 
in  it;  own  member.  Far,  in  the  above  example,  modifies  the  phrase  beyond  ihit 
changing  sky ;  henco  it  is  included  in  it. 

Model  9th.     [How  cold  and  feeble  is  my  love] ! 
1 
(How  negligent  my  fear)  I 

2  3  4 

(How  low  fny  hopes)  (of  joys)  (  ,  ,  abovg) ! 

8 

(How  few  affections,  there) ! 

How  cold  and  feeble  is  my  love,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  plenary 
notation,  perfect  integrity,  and  of  the  exclamativekind,  because  it  expreasea 
an  emotion. 

Exercises. 
[How  tedious  and  tasteless  the  hours] 

(When  Jesus  no  longer  I  see) ! 

1 
(Sweet  prospects,  sweet  birds,  and  sweet  flowers, 

s 
Have  all  lost  their  sweetness)  (to  me)  1 

[IIow  beauteous  are  their  feet,] 
1  2 

(Who  stand)  (on  Zion's  hill  I) 
2  3 

(Who  bring  salvation)  (on  their  tongues,) 

3-1 

(And  words  (of  peace)  reveal)  I 


48  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

1  2 

[How  fast  we  are  travelling]  ('to  the  grave,  the  home)  (of  the  dead  !) 

2  3 

^e^ellOth.' [^fi  ye,  therefore,  ready]  5  (/or,  (in  «,uch  ari^hour)  (a.s  ,  ,  .  > 

"■  ■       4      u  -     1    •  U  -       -     ■■  '^V'-'  '        S 

(ye  think  not),  the  Son  (of  man)  conieth.) 

Be  ye,  there/ore,  ready,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  plenary  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  and  of  the  imperative  kind,  because  it  contains  a  com- 
mand. 

The  SontometJt,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  plenary  notation,  im- 
perfect integrity,  first  rank,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  for  its 
supei- — Be  ye,  therefore,  ready  :  for  the  Son  cometh. 

Of  man,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  plenary  notation,  perfect  in- 
tegrity, second  rank,  and  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  branch  of  the 
first  rank — For  the  Son  of  man  cometh. 

In  such  an  hour,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  etc.,  and  second  rank, 
juxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  first  rank  for  its  super — For  the  Son 
cometh  in  such  an  hour. 

As  that  hour  is,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  reads  with  a  branch  of  the  second  rank  for 
its  super — In  snch  an  hour  as  that  h0ur  is. 

Which  ye  think  not^  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  implenarj-^  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  fourth  rank,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  a  branch  of 
the  third  rank  for  its  super — As  that  hour  is  which  ye  thinh  not. 

Rem.  1. — As,  in  constructions  like  the  above,  is  generally  regarded  bj  authors  as 
a  relative  pronoun.  To  this,  however,  fooae  of  our  ablest  critics  object^  contending 
that  it  i?  a  conjunction.  That  the  latser  view  is  correct  will  appear  obvious  by  ren- 
derin^j  the  senteiice  plenar;, ,  in  which  cafe  as  is  obviously  a  conjunction ;  but  the 
former  view  is,  however,  wi-11  supported.  The  intelligent  student  may  choose  for 
himself. 

Exercises. 

12  1 

[I  like  such  persons]  (as  ,  ,  )  ( ,  have  a  refined  taste.)     [Let ,  such  (as  , ,  ) 
2  11 

(  ,  presume  to  advise  others)  lo(fk  well]  (to  themselves.)     [Let such  (as,  ,  ) 

2  11 

( ,  have  no  fault),  condemn  those  ,]    (who  have).     [We*  are  fond]   (of  the 

2  '3  4  5 

company)  (of  such  persons)  (as  ,  ,  )  (  ,  have  views  similar)  (to  our  own.) 

12  1 

[Such  things  (as  ,  ,  )  ( ,  I  have)  ,  give  1]  (unto  you.)    [You  must  take  such  ,  ] 

12  12 

(as  , ,  )  (  ,  you  can  get.)     [Let  such  (as, ,  )  ( ,  are  faint-hearted),  return] 

1  12 

(  ,  home.)     [Thou  shalt  take  able  bodied  men  such]  (as  ,  ,  )   ( ,  can  do  the 

work)  (of  the  tabernacle.) 

Rem.  1. —  There  are  but  few  ^©rds  in  the  English  language  more  perplexing  than 
the  word  as.  The  ofSce  which  it  performs  in  a  sentence,  irrespective  of  its  form, 
can  only  lead  to  a  correct  understanding  of  its  construction.  >\ben  it  follows  such 
in  construction,  it  is  regarded  by  some,  as  has  already  been  noticed,  aj  a  relative 
pronoun  ;  but,  perhaps,  it  is  more  properly  a  conjunction.  It  is  a  conjunction  when 
it  joins  on  a  member  expressing  equality;  and  it  is  a  preposition  when  used  in  the 
sense  of  like,  for  and  in  the  character  of.  It  is  frequently  an  adverb,  as  will  be  per- 
ceived by  its  modifying  adjective  and  adverbial  elements.  Its  principal  uses  will 
be  illustrated  in  the  following  exercists. 

1  1  2 

Model  llth.  [Be  ye  wise]  (as  serpents ,  , ),  (and , ,  harmless)  (as  doves  , ,  ). 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  49 

Be  ye  wise.,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  etc. 

As  serpents  are  v'!i<e.  is  a  luembt  r  ol'  ihe  branch  order,  implenary  nota- 
tion, perfect  inlegriiv,  firsl  rank,  juxtn  position,  and  reads  with  the  trunk 
for  its  super — Be  ye  itm^as  serpents  ure  wise: 

And  he  ye  harm/exs,  is  'i  inemhei'  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  nota- 
tion, etc. — BeJje  icise,  and  be  ye  harmless. 

As  doves  are  harmless.,  is  .a  member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  no- 
tation, etc. — And  b"  ye  harmless  as  doves  are  harmless.  True  sense  read- 
ing— Be  ye  wise  as  serpents  are  wise,  and  be  ye  harmless  as  doves  are 
harmless. 

Be  ye  wise — how  wise  ?  As  serpents  are  wise  ;  then  as  serpents  arewise, 
is  an  adverbial  elemcnt'of  the  third  cbiss,  and  limits  the  predicate  "be  wise 
by  pointing  outran  equality  o{(2»aUty. 

Reh.  I. — As  the  understood  adjectives  tdse  and  harmtcss  are  not  needed  in  pars- 
ing, their  actual  expression  in  construction,  is  not  absolutely^necessary.    [Eliaa  is 

as  handsome]  (as  her  sister  ,  ,  .)  The  first  as  in  this  sentence,  is  an  adverb,  and 
njodifies  itandsome.    In  other  respects,  the  construction  is  precisely  like  thejmodel. 

Exercises. 
1  2  1 

[As  long  (as  I  am)  (in  the  world),   I  am  the  light]  (of  the  world.)     (As 
1  1 

you   have  opportunity),  [do  good]  (to  all  men.)     [James  [is  as  "tall]  (as 

his  brother, ,) ;  (but  he  is  not  so  handsome.) 

ind. 
(Children  of  the  heavenly  king,) 

1 
(As  we  journey),  [let  us  sing.] 

Rem.  1. — As,  in  the  last  «xample,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  while— a,  sense  in  which 
it  is  frequently  used. 

1 
[Long  (as  they  live),  should  Christians  pray  ;] 

1  8      . 

(They  learn  to  pray)  (when  first  they"live.) 
1 
[His  word  is  as  good]  (as  his  bond  , ,  .) 

Rem.  2.— Nearly  tUied  to  this'constructiou,  is  that,  in   which,  an  adverb  is  con,- 

•  1 

strued  between  two  osos ;  as,  [The  United  States  can  now  as  justly  (as  Groat  Britain,) 

boagt]  (of  their  literary  institutions.)  It  is  conceded  that  Great  Britain  can  justly 
bo.ist,  and  it  is  aflirme<l  that  the  United  States  can  boast  as  justly:  then  it  would 
soom  that  the  first  as  is  used  to  modify  justly  by  pointing  out  how  _;M,'?//y,  smd  justly 
inodilics  £ari  boast— at  the  same  time  it  appears  to  have  some  modifying  influence 
upon  tlie  ."^ecnnd  as;  the  sec- ud  as  pcrfurms  the  office  of  a  connective,  and  is  a  con- 
junction or  a  conjunctive  adverb.  It  cuust  be  confessed,  however,  that  these  words 
as  justly  as,  as  well  us,  etc.,  in  their  modifying  influeucc,  like  the  overlappings  of 
the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  so  minglo,  and  run  into  each  other,  that  it  is  not  a  very 
easy  task  to  analyz  •  them,  and  point  ouc  the  precise  shade  of  meaning  afi°ected  by 
each  separately  ;  heneo  as  welljoa,  as  justly'aSj  etc.,  are  generally  called  conjunc- 
tions by  Grammarians. 

Mr.  Bailey  analyzes  as  weU'as,  as  follows."!"  Shejcan  write  as  well  as  her  sister." 
The  first  as,  he  says,  i.s  an  adverb,  and  modifies  loeli ;  as  well  modifies  the  second  as, 
and  the  second  as  is  a  connective  adverb,  and  modifies' caw  write  understood. 

1 

[She  dances  as  gracefully]  (as  a  queen  ,  ,  .)     (James  can  speak]  (as  welj 


50  ANALTTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE     AXD 

1 

as  Henry  ,  ,  .)     The  latter   sentence,  considering  a4  well  <ia  a  conjunction, 
should  be  construed  as  shown  above. 

Rem.  3. — Af^  well  as  Henry  can  speak,  as  an  element  of  the  sentonce,  is  adverbial, 
and  modifias  tho  predioato  can  speak  by  pointing  out  hoicf  well. 

REsr.  4. — When  as  is  construed  before  the  prepositions /or  and  to,  it  belongs  to  ai2 
implenary  member — such  as  it  is,  it  relates,  etc.,  as  exhibited  in  the  fallowing: 
1  3 

Model  l^th.   (As, ,)  (for  man),  [his  days  are]  (as  grass.) 

His  (Jays  are,  is  a  member  of  the  trnnk  order,  etc.  As  it  is  or  rather  »9 
it  is  determined,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  notation,  per- 
fect integrity,  first  rank,  disjuxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  for  its 
super — "His  days  are  as  it  is  determined."  For  man,  is  a  member  of  the 
branch  order,  plenary  notation,  etc.,  and  reads  with  the  branch  of  the  first 
rank  for  its  super — "  At  it  is  determined  for  man."  As  ffrast,  is  a  member 
of  the  branch  order,  plenary  notation,  etc.,  aftd  reads  with  the  trunk  for 
its  super — "  His  days  are  as  grass."  ''.His  days  are  as  grass  as  it  is  deter- 
mined for  man." 

"(As,  , )  (to-the  tarjff),    [I  have   no   particular  objection],  (but  I  dislike 

the  manner)  (of  raising  it,)"     As   to   the  tariff,  •»,  e.,  as  it  relate*  to  tht 
tariff,  etc. 

Exercises. 
1  2  1 

(If  it  seem  evil  (unto  you)  to  serve  the  Lord),   [choose  you,]  (this  day) 
1  2  3  1 

(whom  ye  will  serve) ;  (but,   (asf ,)  (for  me  and  my  house),  we  will  serve 
the  Lord.) 

Kem.  l.—WAom  refers  to  God  or  gods 'unu^rftood  in  tho  trunk  member  for  its 
antecedent. 

1  2  1 

(As , ,)  (to  our  ancestors),  [it   may  be   observed]   (that  their  educational 

2  12 

advantages  were  much  inferior)  (to   ours.)     (As,,)    (to  me),  [I  know  not 

12  3 

what  course  to  take.]     (As , , )  (to  the  correctness)  (of  his  statement),  [I  can 

1 
not  vouch] ;  (yet  I  believe  him  to  be  an  honest  man.) 

1  1 

'Model  \2>tJi.  "  [Gen.  Taylor   was  more  eminent]  (as  a  soldier),  (than)  (as 

2 

a  statesman.)" 

Gen  Taylor  was  more  eminent,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  etc.  As 
a  soldier,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  etc.  Than  he  teas  eminent,  is  a 
member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  notation,  etc.  Asa  statesman,  is  a 
member  of  the  branch  order,  etc.  "Gen.  Taylor  was  more  eminent  as  a 
soldier,  than  he  was  eminent  as  a  statesman." 

Rem.  1 — As,  in  this  sentence,  is  equivalent  to  in  the  character  oj ;  but  as  the  at- 
tentive student  can  rr adil}'  discriminate  Avhen  as  is  used  in^the  sense  just  giren, 
when  in  the  sense  oi  jor,  and  when  in  the  sense  of  lilit,  no  other  models  need  be 
given  for  tht  construction  of  as  used  as  a  preposition. 

Exercises. 
1 
[He   introduced  himself]  (as  a  joijrneyman.)     [I   employed  him]  (as  a 
1  1     Bi.  po8. 

physician),  (though  he  proved   to   be  a  miserable  quack.)     [The   tutrea* 


CONBTUUCTIVB  GRAMMAR.  5l 

1  '  1 

(who  instructs  those  young  ladies),  is  eminent]  (as  a  scholar.)     [We,  thcre- 

1  2 

fore,  resolve  to  organize]  (under  the  following   articles)  (as  a  constitution.) 

1  1  2 

(As  a  gentleman,)  [I  respect  him],  (but  I  do  not  admire  him)  (as  a  teacher.) 

1  1  2 

[He  thought]  (as  a  sage),  (though  he  felt)  (as  a  man.)     [Man's  days  are]  (as 

1  IBi.  po.  8  3 

grass),  (and  (as  the  flowers)  (of  {he  field),  he  fadeth  away.)  [I  treated  him] 
(as  my  friend.) 

1  3 

Model  14cth.  "  [Jesus  stooped  down],  (and,  (with  his  finger."?,)  wrote)  (on 
3  2  3 

the  ground\  (as,)  (though  he  heard  them  not,)'" 

Rbm.  1. — yl.».  in  thi.s  inoilcl.  givos  an  iraplon.ary  raorabor,  and  should  bo  rendered 
as  follows  :  "  He.  icrolr  <w  he  would  have  donf,  though  he  beard  theoa  not." 

Rem.  2. — As  if  .and  than  if  have  tho  same  construotion — as  alvravs  belonging  to 
an  implonary  membor. 

E.XERCISE3. 

I  2 

[I  treated  him]  (as,,)  (if  he   were  my   son.)     [A  great   mass  (of  rocks 
1  2 

thrown  together)  (with  wildness  and  confusion),  strikes  the   mind]  (with 

1  1  Bi.  po«.  2  3 

TOore  grandeur),  (than  ,  ,  ,)  (if   they  had  been  adjusted)  (to  one  another) 

3  1 

(with  the  most  accurate  symmetry.)     [Some  men  live]  (as,,),  (if  they  never 
3  13  3 

expected  to   die.)     [He   talks]    (as  ,  ,  ,)   (though   he   were    Lord)^  (of  cre- 
ation.) 

12  1  2 

Model  loth  [AlS  it  was]  (in  the  days)  (of  Noe),  («o  shall  it  bo  also)  (in  the 
3  4 

days)  (of  the  Son)  (of  man.) 

IlF.jf.  \.—As  so,  so  as,  both  and,  though  ijft^  not  only  but,  neither  nor,  either  or 
and  sonie  others  of  similar  import,  are  called  correlative  or  coiTfsponrting  conjunc- 
tions, ns  tbey  form  but  one  c<mnecti'^n,  and  have  a  reciprocal  rsliition  to  euch  other. 

Rem.  2. -It  should  be  observed  that  the  two  parts  of  the  correlative  conjunction 
beloDf;  to  different  numbers  of  the  sentence,  ami  that  several  of  them  perform  tho 
office  of  adverbs  in  their  respective  members;  this  is  strictly  true  with  respect,  to 
to  as,  as  so,  and  as  (ts.  « 

Exercises. 

1  1 

[Ab  the  heart  panteth]  (after  the  cooling  water   brook) ;   (so  panteth  my 
2  ind. 

soul)  (after  thee),  (O  Lord  !) 

{.Though  it  may  make  vou  dance  and  sing] 

I  2    " 

iYet,  (like an  adder,)  it  will  sting.) 

1  12 

[Wc  assisted  him  hoth]  (for  his  own  sake),  (and ,  ,  , )  (for  the  sake)  (of  his 
3  1 

fomily).     [General  Washington  was  not  only  a  man]  (of  undaunted  cour- 


62  ANALYTICAL   ILLUSTRATIVE   AKD 

1  2 

age),  (but  he  was  also  a  man)  (of  great  prudence   and  foresight.)     [Ahab, 

12  3 

who  flourished)  (in  the  days)  (of  Elij<ah  the  prophet),  was  neither  wise  nor 

I  1 

pious],  (but  he  was  wicked  and  cruel.)     (When   the  first  division  completes 

2  3  4 

(a  proposition  so)  (as  , , ,  to  have  no  dependence)  (on  what  , ),  (follows),  (but 

3  ,4 

the  following  clause  has  a  dependence)  (on  the  preceding),  [the  two  parts  are 

1 
separated]  (by  a  semicolon.) 

Bem.  1. — Some  grammarians  suppose  that  the  infinitive,  in  such  constructions  as 
the  last  pxample,  depends  on  as;  but  by  supplying  the  understood  words,  it  will  be 
perceived  that  it  depends  on  some  other  word  ;  as,  "  As  it  completes  it  to  have  no 
dependence." 

Eeh.  2. — That  so  performs  the  office  of  an  .adverb  in  its  own  member  is  clear  from 
its  being  equivalent  to  a  phrase  which  is  obviously  adverbial;  as,  "  When  the  first 
division  completes  a  proposition  in  such  a  manner  as  it  completes  it  to  have  no  de- 
pendence," etc. 

Model  lUh.  [More  volunteers  offered  their  services]  (than  ,  ,  )   ( ,  were 

2 

needed.) 

More  volunteers  offered  their  services,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order, 
etc.  Than  they  were,  is  a  member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  notation, 
perfect  integrity,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  for  its  super — 
More  volunteers  offered  their  services  than  they  were.  Who  were  needed,  is 
a'member  of  the  branch  order,  implenary  notation,  perfect  integrity,  second 
rank,  juxta  position,  and  reads  with  the  branch  of  the  tirst  rank  for  its  su- 
per— Than  they  were  who  were  needed.  More  volunteers  offered  their  ser- 
vices, than  they  were  who  were  needed. 

Kem.  1. — In  constructions  like  the  above,  some  grammarians  eunaiderf/tfln  a  rela- 
tive pronoun.  (See  Bailey's  Grammar).  The  con.-iructioc  of  than,  as  used  above 
is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  as  when  it  follows  s'<ch. 

Rem.  2.— When  than  is  used  in  the  seose  of  besides  or  except,  it  is  a  preposition; 
as,  "  Thou  shah  have  no  other  God  than  me" 

Rem.  3.— In  virtue  of  poetic  license,  whom  in  the  objective,  is  construed  after 
than,  instead  of  he  in  the  nominative  ;  a.s  "  Than  whom,  Satan  except,  none  higher 
sat."  This  sentence  rendered  plenary,  und  construed  according  t^  the  laws  of  con- 
struction, would  read  thus,  "  None  sat  higher  than  he  sat,  Satan  exceplfd."  As  the 
use  of  whom  instead  of  he  in  such  eonstruetions,  is  ungrammatical,  it  should  not  bd 
imitated  in  prose  composition. 

• 

Exercises. 

1  1-  2 

[More  applied]  (for  offices)  (than  ,  ,  )  ( ,  were  worthy.)     [He  had  more 

1  2  •> 

legal  learning]  (than  any  attorney,)  (who  appeared)  (at  the  bar.)     (Whoso- 
ever loveth  father  or  mother  more)  ,  (than  ,  ,  me),  [  ,  is  not  worthy]  (of  me). 

3 
[It   is   more  blessed  to  give],  (than  ,  ,  to  receive).     [I  have  known  him] 

1  2 

[  ,  more,)  (than  forty  years.)— I  have  known  him /or  more  years  than  forty 
years  are.    ■ 

Model  17 th.  [What , , , ,  ]  (though  destruction  sweep  these  lovely  plains?) 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  53 

What  reason  have  we  to  defipair,  is  a  member  of  the  trunk  order,  iin ple- 
nary notation,  perfect  integrity,  and  of  the  interrogative  kind,  etc.  Though 
destruction  should  sicecp  these  lorely  p7ains\  is  a  member  of  the  branch 
order,  etc.,  and  reads  with  the  trunk  for  its  sup?r — What  reason  have  we  to 
despair,  though  destruction  should  sweep  these  lovely  plains. 

Rem.  1. — When  what  is  followed  by  though,  it  invariaUl^y  belongs  to  an  implenary 
member  which  should  be  rendered  plcnnry  in  construction  by  supplying  CKCh  wordg 
as  the  sense  demands  ;  for  instance,  "  What  docs  it  viatler  ?"  "  What  have  you  to 
fear  ?"    "  What  reason  have  v>e  to  despair  ?" 

Exercises. 

1 

[What  ,  ,  ,  ]  (though  the  swelling  surge  thou  see  ?) 

1 
(■What ,  ,  ,  ]  (though  the  foot,  ordained  the  dust  to  tread, 
Should  aspire  to  be  the  head  ?) 

1  2 

[What ,  ,  ,  ]  though  ( ,  in  solemn  silence,)  all 

2 
Move)  (round  this  dark  terrestrial  ball  ?) 


CHAPTER    XII. 

GENERAL     RE  j«  ARK  8- 

Rem. — If  the  element  which  the  preposiHon  sivesis  adverbial,  its  canteoedont  term 
must  bo  the  predicate  or  some  other  verbial  element ;  but,  if  the  elementis  adjectiTc. 
its  antecedent  term  must  be  n  substantive  element, ;  ns,  "Joshua  led  the  chi^ren  of 
Israel  into  the  promised  Innd."  Of  Israel  is  an  adjective  element;  hence  its  antece- 
dent term  children  is  a  substantive  eloment;  but,  as  i/ito  the  promised  land  is  an  ad- 
verbial eleu.ent,  its  antecedent  term  led  is  avfrbal  elcini>nt. 

Rkh.  2. — The  trunk  member  must  be  the  leading  clause  of  a  sentence,  though  it 
Is  sometimes  wholly  implenary,  .and  not  anfr  quontly  but  a  sinfjis  word  is  expressed, 
yet,  by  studying  the  sentence  attentively,  its  trunk  character  will  bo  obvious;  as, 

1  3 

0  [  ,  ,  ]  (for  a  closer  walk)  (with  God  !) 

[  ,  ,  Happy],  (if  (with  my  latest  breath), 

1  may  but  gasp  bis  name  !) 

In  the  former  sentence,  the  trunk  member  is  wholly  im]ilcnary,  viz.,  /  wish. 
(See  Peculiar  Constructions.)'  In  the  hitter  sentonoe  only  one  word  is  expressed 
viz.,  happy  (rendered  plenary).     I  shall  be  happy. 

Rem.  .'?. — When  a  relative  pmnoun  is  governed  by  a  preposition,  the  preposition 
is  generally  construed  before  it;  iu  such  cases,  the  sub  is  almost  invariably  con- 
strued before  its  super  ;  as, 

2  1 

"  [Let  him  (to  whom)- (wo  now  belong), 
His  sovereign  right  assert.]" 

REsr.  4. — When  that  is  a  substitute  for  the  following  clause,  and  the  object  of  tho 
preceding  verb,  either  member  may  be  the  trunk  ;  but  the  one  which  follows   it  i3 

1 
generally  preferred  ;  as," (I  have  henrd  that)   [tho   Grcoks  defeated  the  Turk.^.]"* 
"  Tho  Greeks  defeated  the  Turks,  I  h?.vo  heard  that."     For  the  construction  of  tknt, 
see  Peculiar  Constructions. 

*  When  the  latter  clausoi^  the  object  of  tho  verb  in  tin-  prvcediii!?  one,  it  would  ho  bet- 
ter, perhapu,  to  inchide  both  in  one  member. 


64  AKALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

•  PROMISCUOUS   lEXEECISBS. 

LESSON  I. 

Moses  smote  the  rock  with  his  rod.  Jesus  went  unto  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  Joshua  led  the  children  of  Israel,  over  Jordan,  into  the  land  of 
Canaan.  Lot  fled  with  his  two  daughters,  from  Sodom,  to  the  mountains. 
Pale  Cynthia  declining  clips  the  horizon.  I  love  flagrant  flowers.  She 
loves  to  walk  in  the  garden  among  sweet  flowers.  The  slumbering  seas 
calmed  the  grave,  old  hermit's  mind.  A  beam  of  tranquility  often  plays 
around  the  heart  of  the  truly  pious  man.  Mary  studies  her  lessons  atten- 
tively, and  she  learns  very  fast.  Martha  was  troubled  about  many  things. 
Mary  hath  chosen  that  good  part  which  shall  not  be  taken  away  from  her. 
Those  young  ladies  wrote  a  beautiful  letter,  but  they  did  not  dispatch  it. 
A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard,  and  set  a  hedge  about  it,  and  digged  a 
place  for  the  wine  vat.  Jacob  worshipped  the  Lord,  leaning  on  his  stafi". 
The  law  can  make  no  man  perfect.  The  glory  of  the  Lord  came  down  upon 
the  tabernacle.  The  moon  arose  in  clouded  majesty,  and  threw  her  silver 
mantle  over  the  slumbering  waters. 

LESSEN  IL 

Jane  wrote  that  letter  with  a  pen  by  moonlight.  Law,  in  its  most  limited 
sense,  is  a,  rule  of  human  action.  The  All-wise  Creator  bestowed  the  power 
of  speech  upon  man  for  the  best  of  purposes.  A  winding  stream  murmured 
through  the  spicy  groves.  The  way  of  the  transgressor  is  hard.  The  hail 
which  fell  last  week,  badly  injured  the  standing  crops.  Socrates  was  the 
most  learned  philosopher  of  ancient  Greece.  Homer  is  styled  the  prince  of 
poets,  ^he  law  of  nations  is  that  collection  of  principles,  which  regulates 
the  intercourse  among  national  communities.  Whosoever  will  save  his  life, 
shall  lose  it.  The  law  of  the  Lord  is  perfect,  converting  the  soul.  Sow  to 
yourselves  in  righteousness;  reap  in  mercy;  break  up  your  fallow  ground; 
for  it  is  time  to  seek  the  Lord  till  he  come  and  rain  righteousness  upon  you. 
Fair  Cynthia  smiles  serenely  over  nature's  soft  repose.  Modesty  always 
appears  graceful  in  youth  :  it  doubles  the  lustre  of  every  virtue  which  it 
seems  to  hide.  True  cheerfulness  makes  a  man  happy  in  himself,  and  pro- 
motes the  happiness  of  all  around  him.  On  the  wings  of  the  wind,  he  rode, 
and  the  clouds  were  his  chariot.  The  work  might  have  been  completed 
sooner,  but  it  could  not  have  been  done  better.  Surely  goodness  and 
mercy  will  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life  ;  and*I  shall dwellin  the  house 
of  the  Lord  forever. 

Till  Hymen  brought  his  love-delighted  hour, 
There  dwelt  no  joy  in  Eden's  rosy  bower  ; 
The  world  was  sad,  the  garden  was  a  wild  ; 
And  man,  the  hermit,  sighed  till  woman  smiled. 

LESSON  III. 

With  an  insatiable  thirst  for  knowledge,  I  trifled  away  the  years  of  im« 
provemtnt.  He  who,  every  morning,  plans  the  transactions  of  the  day, 
and  follows  out  that  plan,  carries  on  a  thread  that  will  guide  him  through 
the  labyrinth  of  the  most  busy  life.  Alas !  within  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  our  Eepublic  has  been  called  to  mourn  the  destructicn  of  many  of 
her  best  citizens  upon  that  fatal  field  of  honor.     An  aged  beggar,  who, 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  65 

with  trembling  knees,  stood  at  the  gate  of  a  portico,  from  which  he  had 
been  thrust  by  the  insolent  domestic,  who  ^rnarded  it,  struck  the  prisoner's 
attention.  A  certain  Emperor  of  China,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of 
his  ancestors,  commanded  a  general  release  of  all  those  who  had  been  im- 
prigoned  for  debt.  The  value  of  the  Christian  faith  may  be  estimated  by 
the  consolations  which  it  affords.  The  eyes  of  a  fool  are  in  the  ends  of  tho 
earth.  What  I  shall  do  I  l<now  not;  for  clouds  and  darkness  veil  the  fu- 
ture. Yea,  thougli  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  shadow  of  death,  I  will 
fear  no  evil ;  for  thou  art  with  mo.  "Whatever  purifies  the  heart,  also  forti- 
fies it.  In  those  days,  came  John  the  Baptist,  preaching  in  tho  wilderness 
of  Judea. 

The  wind  was  high — the  window  shakca  ; 
With  sudden  start,  the  miser  wakes ! 
Along  the  silent  room  he  stalks ; 
Looks  back,  and  trembles  as  he  walks. 

*  •     LESSON  IV. 

The  night,  which  was  excessively  dark,  had  already  closed  upon  u«,  and 
the  rain  fell  in  torrents.  AVith  features  so  plain  that  not  even  self-love 
could  persuade  her  she  was  handsome,  yet  she  was  exceedingly  anxious  to 
be  thought  beautiful.  An  old  clock,  which,  for  fifty  years,  had  stood  in  a 
farmer's  kitchen,  without  giving  to  its  owner  any  cause  of  complaint,  on 
one  summer's  mornins  before  the  family  was  stirring,  suddenly  stopped. 
A  talkative  fellow  applying  to  Isocratcs  for  instruction  in  oratory,  the  ora- 
tor asked  him  double  price, — "Because,"  said  he,  "  I  must  teach  him  how 
to.speak,  and  when  to  hold  his  tongue."  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  took  the  axe, 
with  which  he  was  to  be  executed,  in  his  hand,  and,  kissing  the  blade,  he 
passed  his  finger  along  the  edge,  remarking  to  the  sheriff — "  'Tis  a  sharp 
medicine,  but  a  sound  cure  for  all  diseases."  Had  he  loved  Spain  more, 
and  England  less,  he  would  never  have  died  on  the  scaffold.  Lady  Jant 
Grey  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  wild  ambition  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland. 

There  no  waves  of  trouble  roll, 
Calmly  rests  the  weary  soul, 
Drinks  from  streams  that  never  dry, 
Gazes  on  a  cloudless  sky. 

There  the  sun  forever  shines, 
And  the  moon  no  more  declines; 
Clouds  and  darkness  flee   away 
From  that  bright,  eternal  day. 

LESSON  V. 

• 

Why  seek  ye  the  living  among  the  dead  ?  Is  there  not  a  cause?  Who 
will  fight  with  this  uncircumciscd  I'iiilistine?  Why  should  it  be  thought 
a  thing  incredible  with  you,  that  God  should  raise  the  dead  ?  Are  ye  an- 
gry with  me;  because  I  have  made  a  man  every  whit  whole?  Dost  thou 
not  behold,  Malvina,  a  rock  with  its  lioad  of  heath  ?  Paul,  the  great  apos- 
tle of  the  Gentiles,  suflercd  martyrdom  at  Rome.  The  voice  of  Henry 
Clay,  the  great  American  orator,  is  now  silent  in  the  grave.  Confucius, 
the  great  Chinese  philosoj)her,  was  imincntly  good  as  well  as  wis(^  Tho 
voice  of  Demosthenes,  the  great  Atiienian  orator,  fell  with  greater  force 
upon  the  hearts  of  the  Athenians,  than    the  thunder  of  the  advancing  le- 


56  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUBTRATIVE    AND 

gions  of  Philip.  Daniel  Webster,  the  great  American  statesman,  was  3 
strong  believer  in  the  principles  of  Christianity.  John  0.  Calhoun,  the 
great  defender  ot  Southern  Rights,  died  in  the  city  of  Washington.  Bona- 
parte, being  banished,  peace  was  restored  to  Europe.  The  General  being 
slain,  the  army  was  routed.  Jesus  had  conveyed  himself  away,  a  multi- 
tude being  in  that  place.  Law,  religion,  and  humanity  being  disregarded, 
the  greatest  terror  reigned  throughout  the  realm  of  France. 

When  shall  I  reach  that  happy  place, 

And  be  forever  blest  ? 
When  shall  I  see  uiy  !^ather's  face, 

And  in  his  bosom  rest  ? 

Depths  of  mercy!  can  there  be, 
.  Mercy  still  reserved  for  me? 
Can  my  Clod  his  wrath  forbear  ? 
Me,  the  chief  of  sinners  spare  ? 

Must  I  be  carried  to  the  skies 

On  flowery  beds  of  ease. 
While  others  fought  to  win  the  prize 

And  sailed  through  bloody  seaa  ? 

LESSON  VI. 

Ceme,  peace  of  mind,  delightful  guest !  and  dwell  with- me, 

Loi  Newton,  priest  of  Nature,  shines  afar. 
Scans  the  wide  world,  and  numbers  every  star. 

Three  aged  pines  bend  from  its  face  ;  green  is  the  plain  at  its  feet,  there 
the  flower  of  the  mountain  grows,  and  shakes  its  white  head  in  the  breeze. 
Whosoever,  therefore,  sliall  confess  me  before  men,  him  will  I  confess,  also, 
before  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven.  He  is  more  eminent  as  a  statesman 
tha  nas  an  orator.  If  ye  believe  not  that  I  am  he,  ye  shall  die  in  your  sins, 
I  treated  him  as,  if  he  were  my  son.  What,  though  the  earth  be  moved, 
and  the  mountains  shake  V  Lo>ve  not  the  world,  nor  the  things  which  are 
in  the  world.  She  is  as  fair  as  her  sister,  but  she  is  not  so  intelligent. 
Get  thee  behind  me,  Satan  ;  for  thou  savorest  not  the  things  that  baof  God 
but  the  things  that  be  of  men. 

Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twi>Iight  gray 
Had,  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad. 
When,  for  eternal  worlds,  1  steer. 
When  seas  are  calm,  and  skies  are  clear,. 
The  soul,  for  joy,  then  claps  her  wings, 
And  loud  her  lovely  sonnet  sings, 
"Vain  world,  adieu!" 

Hem.  I. — The  prcfceding  exercises  should  be  analyied,  construed  or  syntbetiBetJ, 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  57 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

IDEA,    THOUGHT,    AND     n?OPOSTTION. 

§  1.  An  Idea  is  a  mental  picture. 

The  external  object  of  an  idea  is  called  its  archetype  or  pattern.  An  idea 
tuay  be  said  to  be  true  when  it  agrees  with  its  archetype  in  all  its  particu- 
lars ;  it  may  be  said  to  be  false  when  it  disagrees  with  its  archetype,  and  it 
may  be  saii  to  be  partially  false,  when  it  agrees  in  some,  and  disagrees  in 
other  particulars. 

Several  ideas  united  in  the  mind  form  a  thought.  A  thought  expressed 
or  clothed  in  words,  forms  a  sentence  or  Proposition.  Ideas  then  arc  the 
elements  of  thought,  and  as  words  arc  the  signs  of  ideas,  they  are  conse- 
quently the  elements  of  a  proposition. 

§  2.  A  Proposition  is  a  portion  of  discourse,  in  which  a 
predicate  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  a  subject. 

A  Proposition,  in  a  logical  sense,  consists  of  three  parts — the  Subject, 
the  Predicalc,  and  the  Copula, 

§  3.  The  predicate  is  the  name,  denoting  that  which  is  af- 
firmed Or  denied. 

§  4.  The  Copula  is  the  sign  denoting  that  there  is  an  affirma- 
tion or  denial,  and  thereby  enabling  the  hearer  or  reader  to 
distinguish  a  proposition  from  any  other  kind  of  discourse. 

§  5,  The  subject  is  the  name  denoting  the  person  or  thing, 
of  which  something  is  affirmed  or  denied. 

§  G.  Categorical  propositions  are  of  four  kinds,  namely.  Uni- 
versal Affirmatives;  as.  All  B  is  C,  Universal  Negatives:  as, 
."NoBisC,"  Particular  Affirmatives;  as,  "Some  B  is  C," 
and  Particular  Negatives  ;  as,  some  B  is  not  C, 

§  7.  Propositions  are  divided  according  to  their  quality  in 
Affirmative  and  Negative, 

An  affirmative  proposition  is  that  in  which  the  predicate  is  affirmed  of 
the  subject;  as,  "Calhoun  is  dead." 

A  Negative  proposition  is  that  in  which  the  Predicate  is  denied  of  tho 
Eubjecl ;  as,  "  Calhoun  is  not  dead. 

§8.  Propositions  a»c  divided  according  to  their  quantity 
into  Universal  and  Particular. 

A  Proposition  is  vnivierml,  when  the  subject  is  a  general  name  embracinf 
a  whole  species  of  class,  and  the  predicate  affirms  concerning  all  or  each 
of  the  things  denoted  by  the  s  jbjcct;  thus,  "All  men  are  mortal,"  because 
the  predicate  atDrms  of  all  the  individuals,  denoted  by  the  subject;  and 
••  Krrry  man  is  mortal,"  is  also  a  universal  proposition,  because  what  is 
nflirmed  of  one  individual,  the  mind,  inetantancou.'-ly,  if  not  instinctively 
transfers  to  the  whole.  ^ 


68  ANALYTICAL,  CONSTRUCTIVE    AND 

A  Proposition  is  particular,  when  the  subject  is  limited  by  some  limiting 
word,  which  shows  the  predicate  affirms  concerning  a^>ar^  of  the  whole; 
as,  "Some  men  are  religious." 

Resi.  I. — ThoFe  propositions  which  are  called  indefinite,  are  either  Universal  or 
Particular  according  to  the  sense  ;  as,  "  Man  is  mortal." 

Rem.  2. — Singular  propositions  are  generally  regarded  a^  Universal;  since  the 
■whole  of  the  predicate  is  affirmed  of  the  whole  subject ;  as,  "  Brutus  was  a  RiOiaan." 

TERMS  OF  A  PROPOSITION. 

§  9.  Every  proposition  has  two  terms,  viz.,  the  subject  and 
predicate.  When  any  word  can  be  a  term  of  itself,  it  is  said 
to  be  Categorematic  ;  but,  when  any  word  is  incapable  of  con- 
stituting a  term  of  itself,  it  is  called  Syncategorematic ;  as,  ad- 
verbs, prepositions,  etc. 

Rem.  1. — A  term  is  said  to  be  distributed  when  it  has  a  universal  sign  prefixed  to 
it,  such  as  all,  every,  no,  etc. 

Kkm,  2. — The  signs  of  universality  and  particularity,  are  sometimes  understood 
or  omitted  t 

Rem.  3.— The  Universal  AflBrmative  distributes  the  subject,  the  Universal  Nega- 
tive both  the  suhject  and  tha  predicate;  the  Particular  Negative  distributes  the 
predicate,  and  the  Particular  Affirmative  neither  the  subject  nor  the  predicate. 

CONVERSION  OF  PROPOSITIONS. 

§  10.  A  proposition  is  converted  when  the  predicate  is  made 
the  subject,  and  the  subject  the  predicate  ;  as,  "No  B  is  0 ; 
therefore,  no  C  is  B," 

A  proposition  can  be  converted  simply  when  both  terms  are  distributed, 
or  neither  term,  or  wlaen  both  terms,  in  their  meaning,  are  coextensive  ; 
as,  "All  men  are  rational  animals ;  therefore,  all  rational  animals  are  men." 
All  negroes  are  human  beings,  but  we  cannot  say  all  human  beings  are  ne- 
groes ;  because  the  terra  human  beings  is  more  extensive  in  its  meaning 
than  the  term  negroes.  In  such  cases,  wq  say  we  admit  the  proposition,  but 
deny  its  converse,  that  is,  its  apparent  converse ;  for  the  truth  of  the  real 
or  logical  converse,  always  follows  from  the  truth  of  its  exposita. 

As  the  Universal  Negative  distributes  both  terms,  and  the  Particular 
AfQrmative  neither,  they  can  be  converted  simply  ;  as,  "  No  B  is  C  ;  then 
no  C  is  B.     Some  B  is  C  ;  then  some  0  is  B." 

The  Universal  Affirmative  is  converted  by  limitation,  or,  as  it  is  generally 
called,  per  uecidens;  as,  "All  B  is  C  ;  then  some  C  is  B." 

A  proposition  is  said  to  be  illatively  converted  when  no  term  is  distribu- 
ted in  the  converse,  which  was  undistributed  in  the  exposita. 

OPPOSITION  OF  PB,OPOSITIONS. 

§  11.  Categorical  propositions  are  opposed  in  four  ways,  viz., 
1,  Contraries,  2,  Subcontraries,  -3,  Subalterns,  and  4,  Contra- 
dictories. 


Constructive  grammar.  59 

When  universal  propositions  disagree  in  quality,  they  are  called  Contra- 
ries ;  as,  "  All  B  is  0.  -No  B  is  C."  When  particulars  disagreoin  quality, 
they  arc  called  Subcontraries:  as,  "Some  B  i.s  C.  Some  B  is  not  C." 
Propositions  are  called  Subalterns  when  they  disagree  in  quantity  on\y  \ 
OvS,  '■'■All  B  is  C,  some  B  is  C,  and  no  B  is  C.  I'iomc  B  is  not  C."  When 
propositions  disacree  hoik  in  quantity  and  quality,  they  are  called  Contra- 
dictories ;  as,  All  B  is  C.     Some  B  is  not  C.     No  B  is  C.     Some  B  is  C." 

Rem.  1. — A  proposition  and  its  contradictory  can  never  both  be  true,  nor  both 
false. 

Rem.  2.— Those  teachers  who  are  not  acquainted  with  Logic,  can,  if  they  choose, 
pass  over  this  and  the  following  chapter. 


CHAPTER    Xy. 

REASONING. 


§  Reasoning  is  that  art  or  process  of  the  viind,  hyivhich  new 
or  unknoivn  truths  are  deduced  from  propositions  known  and 
evident,  or  admitted  or  supposed  for  the  sake  of  arguments 

There  are'  two  kinds  of  reasoning — Deductive  and  Inductive. 

Deductive  is  reasoning  from  the  cause  to  the  eff'ect,  or  from  the  whole  to 
tls  parts. 

/;if?Mcfipe  is  reasoning  from  the  ejfect  to  the  caw.s^,  or  from  the  parts  to 
the  icliole;  Thus,  when  the  subject  is  given  and  the  predicate  required, 
the  reasoning  is  Deductive  \  and  when  the  predicate  is  given  and  the  sub- 
ject required,  the  process  is  called  Inductive  reasoning. 

§  2.  Syllogistic  reasoning  is  deductive. 

A  true  Syllogism  consists  of  three  propositions,  viz.,  the  major,  minor, 
and  conclusion,  and  three  terms — and  three  only,  viz.,  the  major,  minor, 
and  middle  terms  ;  as,  "AUBisC  (the  major);  some  A  is  B  (minor); 
therefore,  some  A  is  C  (conclusion)." 

Rem.  1. —  The  predicate  of  the  conclusion  is  always  the  major  term,  and  the  euh- 
jtct  of  the  conclusion,  is  iho  minor  term  ;  hence,  by  subtracting  those  terms  from 
the  terms  of  the  premises,  tie  remainder  will  be  the  mi\tdh  term,  which,  in  the 
foregoing  syllogism  is  B.  By  inspection  the  learner  will  perceive  that  the  middle 
term  is  the  subject  of  th*  major  proposition,  and  the  predicate  of  the  miivr  propo- 
sition. Hence,  to  prove  the  conclusion  of  an  affirmative  syllogism,  we  have  the 
following 

Rule. 

If  any  two  terms  nnrree  with  onp  and  the  same  middle  term, 
tbey  must  agree  with  each  other.  Kow  I  find  by  inspection 
that  the  major  term  C  agrees  with  the  middle  term  B  as  the 
predicate,  and  the^iinor  term  A  agrees  with  the  same  middle 


60  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

term  B  as  its  subject ;  now,  as  these  two  terms  agree  with  one 
and  the  same  middle  term,  they  must  agree  Avith  each  other  ; 
therefore  "  Some  A  is  C" 

For  proving  a  Negative  conclusion  we  have  the  following 

Rule. 

If  one  of  two  terras  agrees,  and  the  other  disagrees  ^ith  one 
and  the  same  third  or  middle,  they  must  disagree  with  each 

other. 

No  B  is  C  ; 
All  A  is  B  ; 
Therefore  no  A  is  C. 

By  inspection,  I  find  that  the  major  term'  0,  in  this  syllogism,  disagrees 
with  the  middle  term  B  as  its  predicate  ;  and  the  minor  term  A  agrees  with 
the  same  middle  B  as  its  subject.  Now,  as  one  of  these  terms  agrees,  and 
the  other  disagrees  with  the  same  middle  term  B,  they  must  disagree  with 
each  other;  therefore,  "No  A  is  C." 

Rem.  1. — By  inspecting  ths  construction  of  the  two  syllogisms  already  giTCP,  the 
learner  will  perceive  that  the  predicate  of  the  conclusion  agrees  with  the  predicate 
of  the  major,  the  subject  of  the  conclusion  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  minor, 
and  that  the  predicate  of  the  minor  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  major.  This  is 
invariably  the  case  in  all  syllogisms  of  the  first  figure. 

*:  Proof  of  the  Minob. 

All  good  men  are  patriots  ; 

General  Washington  was  good  ; 

Therefore  General  Washington  was  a  patriot. 
The  truth  of  the  major  being  granted,  the  minor  is  proved  as  follows:  In 
this  syllogism  the  same  thing  is  2^'>'edicated  of  the  subject  of  the  minor, 
which  is  assumed  of  the  subject  of  the  major,  or,  in  other  words,  the  predi- 
cate of  the  minor  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  major ;  then  the  subject 
of  the  minor  is  a  part  of  the  whole  class,  included  in  the  subject  of  the 
major.  Now  whatever  can  be  predicated  of  the  whole  (logically  speaking 
can  be  predicated  of  any  of  its  parts;  but  1  have  proved  ih2.i  General 
Washington  WiQ  m\noY,  is  a  part  oiihe  tchole;  therefore  I  can  predicate 
patriot  of  General  Washmgton,  because  it  is  predicated  of  the  whole  class 
of  which  he  is  a  part. 

Figures  of  Syllogissis. 

There  are  four  figures  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  position  of 
the  middle  term.  In  the  first  figure,  which  is  by  far  the  most  perfect  of 
all,  and  to  which  all  others  may  be  reduced,  the  middle  term  is  the  suhjeci 
of  the  major  proposition,  and  the  predicate  of  the  minor  ;  as, 

B\sC; 
AisB; 
Therefore  A  is  C. 

The  middle  term  in  the  second  figure,  isthe  2yredicate  of  loth  premises  ;  as, 

C\sB- 
AisB; 
Therefore  A  is  C.  • 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR. 


61 


In   the   third   figure,  the   middle    term    is    the   subject  of  both  premi- 
ses ;  as,  « 

7?isO; 
^  is  A ; 
Therefore  A  is  C. 

The  middle  term  is  the  predicate  of  the  major  and  subject  of  the  minor  in 
the  fourth  figure  ;  as, 

C  is  J?; 

J5  is  A ; 

Therefore  A  is  C. 


Rem.  1. — By  close  Inspection  of  the  Syllogisms  of  the  different  figures  given 
above,  the  learner  will  readily  perceive  that  the  middle  term  can  never  bo  used  in 
the  conclusion;  as  it  is  that  with  which  the  other  two  are  compared,  and  by  whose 
aid  a  correct  conclusion  can  be  drawn.  Hence,  it  has  been  called  by  the  older  Lo- 
gicians argument  Kin. 

Modes. 

Each  figure  is  subdivided  into  Modes  according  to  what  are  called  the 
quantity  and  qunVity  of  the  premises,  that  is,  according  as  they  are  Uni- 
versal or  Particular,  Affirmative  or  Negative. 

The  following  are  examples  of  all  the  legitimate  modes,  that  is,  all  in 
which  the  conclusion  correctly  follows  from  the  premises.  A  is  the  minor 
term,  C  the  major,  and  B  the  middle. 


FiKST  Figure. 


All  B  is  C  ; 
All  AisH; 
Therefore 
All  A  is  C. 


No  C  is  n  ; 
All  A  isB; 
Therefore 
No  A  is  C. 


NoBisC; 
All  A  isB; 
Therefore 
No  A  is  C; 


All  B  is  C  ; 
Some  A  is  B; 

Therefore 
Some  A  is  C  ; 


Second  Figure. 


AllCisB; 
No  A  is  B; 
Therefore 
No  A  is  C. 


No  C  is  B  ; 

Some  A  is  B  ; 

Therefore 

Some  A  is  not  C. 


No  B  is  C  J 

Some  A  is  B  i 

Therefore 

Some  A  is  not  C. 


AllBisC; 
Some  A  is  not  B; 

Therefore 
Some  A  is  not  C. 


Third  Figure. 


All  B  is  C  ; 

All  Bis  A; 

Therefore 

Some  A  is  C. 


NoBisC;     (Some  B  is  C; 
All  Bis  A;         All  Bis  A; 
Therefore  Therefore 

Some  AisnotC.ISome  A  isC. 


All  BisC: 
SonieB  iV  A ; 

Therefore 
Some  A  is  C. 


Some  Bis  note-       No  C  is  B; 

All  B  is  A  ;        Some  B  is  A  ; 

Therefore  Therefore 

Some  A  is  nbtC.  I  Some  A  is  not  C. 


Fourth  Figure. 


AllCisB; 

All  B  isA; 

Therefore 

Some  A  is  C. 


All  C  is  B  : 
No  B  is  A  ; 
Therefore 
No  A  isC. 


Some  C  is  B  ;  i       No  C  is  B ; 
A  1  Bis  A;  All  B  is  A  ; 

Therefore  Therefore 

Some  A  is  C.  ISomc  A  is  not  C, 


No  C  is  B  ; 

Some  B  is  A  ; 

Therefore 

Some  A  is  not  C. 


'  The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  Rules  to  be  observed 
in  drawing  a  correct  conclusion. 

Rule  I. 
One  of  the  premises  must  be  a  Universal  proposition. 

Rule  II. 
Both  premises  must  not  be  negative. 


62  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

Rule  III. 

If  one  of  the  premises  is  Ne2;ative,  the  conclusion  must  be 
Negative. 

Rule  IV. 

The  Middle  term  must  be  distributed  once,  and  once  is  suffi- 
cient. 

Rule  V. 

The  Middle  term  muat  not  be  ambiguous,  i,  e.,  it  must  be 
used  in  the  same  sense  in  both  premises. 

Rule  VI. 

No  term  must  be  distributed  in  the  conclusion,  -which  is  un- 
distributed in  the  premises. 

Rem.  1. — From  Universal  premises,  we  may  generally  draw  a  Universal  concla- 
■i»D,  but  not  always,  as  will  b«  seen  by  osamintng  the  following  syllogism  : 

All  gold  is  prtcioas; 

All  gold  is  metal ; 

Therefore  all  metal  is  prtcious. 

This  coTJchision  is  incorrect,  though  the  premi|es  are  Unifersal  propositions. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  bpcause  metal  has  a  more  extensive  meaning  thaa  Gold. 
The  true  conclusion  is,  So?ne  metal  is  precious. 

All  birds  are  animals; 
Horses  are  achnals ; 
Therefore  horsos  are  birds. 

The  fallacy  of  this  ^-onclusion,  arises  from  the  Middle  term  not  being  distrihvied. 
No  Affirmative  coni^lwsion  can  be  proved  in  the  ifecond  figure;  since  the  Mid. He 
term  is  the  predicate  of  both  propositicns,  and  the  predicate  of  no  Affirmative  pro- 
position is  or  can  be  distribated. 

When  the  conclu«ion  or  proposition  to  be  proved,  is  stated  first,  it  is  called  the 
question  ;  and  the  premises,  which  follow,  are  said  to  assign  the  reason  or  cause  ;  as, 
"  Thou  art  a  teacher  come  from  God;  for  no  man  can  do  the  miracles  ..that  thou 
doest,  except  God  be  with  him."  But,  when  the  premises  are  stated  first,  the  propo* 
sition  to  be  proved  is  called  the  eonclnsion  or  inference  ;  as,  "  Cassar  was  a  tyrant; 
therefore  he  deserved  death." 

Rem.  2. Tbo.-e  conjunctions  which  join  on  premises,  are  called  causal— such  ai 

because,  for,  since,  etc. ;  but  conjanctioBs  wuich  join  on  the  conclusion,  are  called 
illative — as  therefore,  then>  hence,  etc. 

Rem.  8. — The  major  premise,  in  curreut  discourse,  is  generally  suppressed. 

§  3.  When  the  predicate  of  each  preceding  proposition  .be- 
comes the  subject  of  each  succeeding  proposition,  and  so  on  till 
the  last  predicate  agrees  with  the  first  subject,  the  process  is 
called  a  sorzYes,  as  illustrated  in  the  following  example:  "A 
miser  covets  much  ;  he  that  covets  much,  wants  much ;  he  that 
wants  much  is  miserable  ;  therefore  the  miser  is  miserable." 

A  Regular  Syllogism  may  be  constructed  upon  any  of  the 
rules  of  Syntax,  or  the  principles  upon  which  those  rules  are 


COXSTRUCTIVK    GRAMMAR.  63 

based,  by  making  the  rule  itself,  or  the  principle  upon  which 
it  is  based,  the  major  proposition,  as  illustrated  in  the  following 
syllogisms  : 

The  subject  of  the  vcr'i  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

He  is  the  sulyect  of  a  verb  ; 
Then  he  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  in  the  active  voice,  must  be  in  the  objec- 
tive case. 

John  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice ; 
Then  John  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 
Adjectives  belong  to  nouns  or  pronouns. 

Wise  is  an  adjective ; 
Therefore  icise  belongs  to  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

Rem.  1- — Students  may  be  pnilitubly  cxoroisod  in  forraiag  8yUogt.;>u,'?  on|||!he  rules 
of  Syntax,  nr  the  principles  on  which  ihey  are  based,  and  applying  tUeui  lu  correct- 
ing fulso  Syntax. 

ItESf.  2.— As  a  scientific  oxerciso  of  the  reasoning  faculty,2is  iii'iispen^ably  neces- 
s*ry  in  making  a  rapid  progress  in  the  a3(^ui8iiion  of  Sv^i«nt!fic  and^lingnal  knowl- 
edge, the  author  ha.-i  baon  lei  t)coniH'i"t.  as  far  a»  puasiblo,  Lotfii.il  reasoning  with 
the  study  of  i;raniinar.  Indeed  there  is  a  very  intimate  conntotion  between  the  twt^ 
sciences;  siacd  Graruimr  is  conversant  about  language  unirersilly,  and  Lofio  is 
convorsaiu  about  lingunj^o  in  a  p.irtiouUr  way.  Long  cxocn.'ncu  in  teaching  has 
fuIiy  convinced  him  taat  without  coust.icr  exercise  of  the  reasoning  faculty,  not 
only  a  slow  progress  will  be  ui.tde,  but  that  little  or  no  interest  will  be  felt  in  the 
pursuit  of  .scientific  knowledge. 

Aujpie  sxercisos  will  be  found  in  ths  symbolical  syllogisms  given  above. 


PART    II, 


CHAPTER     I, 


OF    LAN  GU AGE. 

1 1.  Language,  from  the  Latin  lingua— a,  tongue,  is  the  me- 
dium through  which  mind  travels  to  mind,  or  the  instrument  or 
means  by  which  the  ideas  and  affections  of  mind  and  body  are 
communicated  from  one  animal  to  another.  Therefore  brutes, 
in  a  limited  sense,  possess  the  power  of  language  ;  for,  by  va- 
rious inarticulate  sounds,  they  make  known  their  wants,  desires 
and  sufferings. 

Lano-uage  is  of  two  kinds— ,'?f>o;?:<J/i  and  written.  The  elements  of  spoken 
language  are  articulate  sounds,  uttered  by  the  voice  which  is  formed  by  the 
air  issuing'  through  the  glottis,  a  very  small  aperture  in  the  vocal  tube,  or 
wind-pipe,  and  modulated  by  the  articulations  of  the  vocal  organs— such  as 
the  throat,  totigue,  palate,  teeth  and  lips.  This  is  the  original  and  proper 
sense  of  the  word  langnatje.  •     .    .  >. 

But  as  sounds  are  fleeting,  and  incapable  of  being  conamunicated  to  a 
creat  distance,  if  men  had  no  other  means  of  communicating  their  thoughts, 
their  intercourse  would  be  limited  to  a  small  compass,  and  their  ideas  would 
be  intrusted  to  memory  and  tradition  only  ;  by  which  they  would  soon  be 
obscured,  perverted  or  forgotten.  Hence  the  necessity  of  the  invention  of 
characters  to  represent  sounds,  exhibit  them  to  the  eye,  and  render  them 
durable.  This  was  the  origin  of  written  language.  The  elements  of  this 
lan-ruage  are  letters  or  characters,  which,  by  consent  of  men  and  common 
usage,  are  combined  into  words  made  to  represent  the  sounds  uttered  by 
the  voice.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  this  medium  through  which  thought 
is  transmitted  from  one  mind  to  another,  should  be  clearly  understood  by 
aH  who  use  it  for  the  communication  of  their  thoughts.  Hence  arises  the 
necessity  of  studying  thoroughly  the  Grammar  of  the  language,  which  we 
employ  for  such  a  medium  of  communication  or  thought. 

Rem.  1.— Gesticulation  is  a  kind  of  universal  langusge ;  for,  by  means  of  certain 
cestures,  those  who  are  barbarians  to  each  other,  are  enabled,  to  a  limited  extent,  to 
communicate  their  thoughts,  feelings  and  desires  to  each  other.  It  is  the  language 
in  which  the  deaf  and  dumb  converse  ;  and,  when  properly  used,  it  is  a  powerful 
auxiliary  to  vocal  delivery. 


CHAPTER    II. 

GRAMMAR. 


§1.  Ghammar,  from  the  Greek  gramma— a  letter,  may  be 
defined  the  science  of  letters,  or  the  science  of  signs.  Letters 
are  lingual  sigm^  or  the  representatives  of  elementary  sounds* 


ee 


ANALYTICAL^  ILLl.STRATIVE    AND 


Hence  in  a  perfect  language  there  would  be  as  many  signs  as 
there  are  sounds,  or,  in  other  words,  as  many  letters  as  there 
are  elementary  sounds  ;  then  each  sound  would  be  represented 
by  its  own  appropriate  character,  and  none  other.  But  this  ia 
very  far  from  being  the  case  in  the  English  language — there 
being  thirty-eight  simple  sounds,  and  but  twenty-six  characters 
or  letters  to  represent  them.  The  necessary  consequence  is 
that  one  letter  must  represent  more  sounds  than  one.  Hence 
arise  much  obscurity  and  many  provincialisms. 

Grammarians  generally  divide  the  twenty  rix  letters  of  the  English  lan- 
guage into  voirels  and  consonnrifs;  and  the  consonants  the}'  subdivide  into 
mutes  and  semi  voic els.  This  divisioxi  is  not  founded  in  philosophic  truih, 
at  least,  some  of  tlie  names  are  badly  chosen.  The  n  ord  consmumfy  from 
con,  together,  and  noito,  to  sound,  sii^ndies  a  Ictler  or  a  sound,  that  cannot 
pound  only  together  with  some  other  sound,  ytl  they  are  said  to  have  an 
imperfect  sound  of  themselves.  The  mutes,  it  is  said,  cannot  be  sounded 
at  all  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel ;  as,  b,  p,  t,  d,  k,  etc.  Now,  this  is  palpa- 
bly erroneous,  for  every  sound  in  the  language  is  susceptible  of  being  ut- 
tered in  its  own  individual,  elementary  character.  This  has  been  clearly 
demonstrated  by  Dr.  Coinsiock,  of  Philadelphia. 

A  mo)c  f.'hiiosophic,  and  constqnently  a  more  truthful  division  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  is  into  three  classes,  vi/>,  :  tonics  oc  v<*wels,  sub- 
tonics' or  sub-vowels,  lind  atonies  or  a-spiratcs.  The  tonics,  from  the  Greek 
tonos,  3^  tdne  or  sovnd^hixxe  A\\t  purest  vocility  ;  tae  sub-tonics,  as  their 
name  indicates,  are  inferior  in  vocaliiy  ;  and  the  atonies,  as  tlitir  name  in- 
dicates, are  wholly  destitute  of  vocaliiy,  and  are  only  heard  in  the  whisper- 
ing voice. 

In  the  following  table,  the  thirty-eight  elementary  sounds  and  the  manner 
of  representing  theuj,  are  presented : 


15  ToHics. 

a 

in  States 

a 

"  are 

a 

*'  all 

i 

"  that 

e 

"  we 

0 

"  met 

i 

"  pine 

i 

"  pit 

o 

"  more 

'6 

"  move 

G 

"  on 

fl 

"  tube 

n 

"  up 

11 

"  full 

ou 

"  our 

14  Si 

jB  Tonics. 

b 

in 

bow 

d 

u 

day 

g 
1 

(( 
a 

gay 

love 

m 

ii 

man 

n 

ii 

no 

ng 
r 

ii 
ii 

song 
roll 

th 

ii 

thou 

V 

ii 

vow 

w 

ii 

wo 

y 

(( 

yoke 

7. 

u 

zone 

Z 

(( 

azure 

9 

Atonics 

V 
t 

eh 

k 

in  pin 
"  tin 
"  shade 
"  kite 

8 
f 

th 

h 

wh 

'•'  sin 
•'  fume 
"  thin 
"  hat 
'*  what 

Hem.  ].— The  reader  will  ob-'erre  that  C,  ch,  J,  Q  and  A^  are  not  found  in  the 
above  table,     ihe  reasou  of  this  if,  iLtte  letters  rej  resent  no  sounds  which  aie  not 


CONSTRUCTIVE    OHAMMAR.  67 

represented  hj  other  chsrwcters.  C  tnkes  fhe  sound  of  k  beforcs  tbc  totiics  a,  o  and 
u  ;  as  cflt,  cot,  e»/t ;  but  before  tbv  totiicK  <>,  ».  and  y,  it  takes  the  sound  of  s;  as 
rent,  city,  e'c. ;  and,  in  orean,  it  has  the  sound  of  sh. 

Ch  represents  the  oomlnnwd  6n'jn'!s  of  t  and  sh  ;  a«  in  church,  cAin,  etc.  J,  the 
combined  sounds  of  d  in  (/aj.  aiid  z  in  azure  ;  tK-  in  Job,  John. 

Q  has  the  8ouod  of  k;  as  in  ooo^uer;  and  x  haa  tie  sound  of  ks ,  ss  in  i  rariise, 
writ,  etc.,  uf  g-z  ia  exatnpU,  »nd  of  ^■sA  in  anxious. 

SECTION  I. 

TONICSORVOWELS. 

§  2.  These  are  divided  into  Monothongs,  Diphthotiffs,  and 
Triphthongs,  In  a  Monothong,  but  one  kind  of  sound  is  heard 
throughout  its  concroto  movement,  the  orgajie  remaining  in  the 
same  position  throughout  its  prolongation  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
its  radical  and  vanish  are  the  sauK).     They  arc  the  following  : 

a     a     tt     e     S    I     8     u     u 

The  Diphthongs  consist  of  two  kinHs  of  sound,  which  coalesce  so  inti- 
mately that  they  appt-ar  like  one  uniform  sound.  A  I)i[>hthong-  in  form  is 
the  union  of  two  v.i*«ls,  which  are  uttered  so  rapid!}-  in  succession,  as  to 
be  considered  as  foiuiinj;  but  one  syilable;  as  ot  in  r*jV<j.  A  Diplithoufj, 
in  sound,  has  a  characteristic  sound  for  its  radical,  and  another  for  its  vanish. 
The  Diphthongs  in  sound  are, 

a     i     o     u 

>?F.M.  1. — The  learner  will  obgorre  that  some  of  these  Diphthong',  when  carried 
tbroujfb  a  wide  ranjto  of  pitch,  as  interrogations  with  surprise,  become  Triphthonfs. 
(Pee  Analysis  of  TripbthongH.) 

.  Triphthongs,  in  sound,  consist  of  the  union  of  three  Towels  in  one  sylla- 
ble ;  as  ifw  in  rieir.  Triphthonrrs,  in  form,  consist  of  three  kinds  of  sound, 
which  coale^icc  so  intimately  that  thoy  appc.tr  like  one  uniform  sound.' 
They  are  as  follows : 

O      OU 

The  first*  constituent  of  o,  as  well  as  ou,  is  a  sound  charac- 
teristic of  this  element ;  and  the  diphthong  o  constitutes  the 
second  and  third  constituents  of  this  triphthong.  (See  Com- 
stock's  System  of  Elocution. 

§3.  ANALYSIS  OF  DIPHTHONGS. 

DIPHTnONGS.  RADICALS.  VANISH. 

a  a  1 

i  I  i 

<5  ii  w 

u  u  w 

01  '1  i 

The  radical  or  vanish  are  called  constituents. 


$B  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE    ANI? 

§  4,  ANALYSIS  OF  TRIPHTHONGS. 


TRIPHTHONGS. 

RADICALS. 

MEDIAN, 

VANISH. 

a 

a 

I 

e 

i 

1 

i 

g 

0 

S 

0 

\f 

ow 

ow 

b 

w 

«y  or  ai 

a 

I 

e 

oy  or  oi 

a 

I 

e 

uoy 

0 

I 

e 

SECTION   II. 

SUB-TONICS. 

§  5.  B  \s  a,  compound  of  vocality  and  aspiration  ;  tlie  first 
constituent,  which  is  vocal,  is  formed  with  the  lips  closed  ;  the 
second,  by  aspirating  or  whispering  u^  at  the  moment  of  their 
separation. 

D  coTisists  of  a  vocal  and  aspirate  sotmd.  The  first  constituent  is  formed 
with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  pressed  against  the  gums  of  the  upper  incisory 
teeth ;  the  second,  by  aspirating  the  vowe!  u2  at  the  mcment  of  its  re- 
moval. 

G^  is  a  compound  of  vocality  and  aspiration.  The  first  constituent  is 
formed  with  the  root  of  the  tongue  pressed  against  the  curtain  or  vail  of 
the  palate ;  the  second  by  aspirating  the  vowel  u2  at  the  moment  of  its  re- 
moval. 

RxH.  1. — Spffcial  care  should  be  taken  not  to  render  tSe  second  constituents  of  b, 
d,  and  g  vocal. 

L  is  a  pure  vocal  sound  made  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  pressed  against 
the  gums  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth,  and  propelling  the  breath  through 
the  mouth. 

Jf  is  a  nasal  sound  made  with  the  lips  closed  and  propeHing  the  breath 
through  the  nose. 

^is  a  nasal  sound  formed  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  pressed  against  the 
gums  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth,  and  propelling  the  breath  through  the 
nose. 

NG,  as  in  song,  is  a  nasal  sound,  formed  with  the  root  of  the  tongue 
pressed  gently  against  the  vail  of  the  palate,  so  as  to  propel  the  breath  di- 
rectly through  the  nose. 

i^  is  a  vocal  sound  of  which  there  are  two  varieties.  The  first  is  called 
the  smooth  i?,  and  is  made  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  elevated  towards  the 
center  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth,-  and  propelling  the  breath  through  the 
mouth.  The  second  is  called  the  trilled  R,  and  is  formed  by  causing  the 
tongue  to  vibrate  against  the  gums  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth  while  the 
breath  is  propelled  through  the  mouth.  The  R  should  be  trilled  when  it 
precedes  a  vowel ;  as  in  roll,  crush,  etc.,  but  should  invariably  be  rendered 
smooth  when  it  follows  a  vowel ;  as  in  air,  etc. 

T^  is  a  compound  of  vocality  and  aspn-ation,  formed  with  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  restiag  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  69 

Fis  also  a  compound  of  vocaliry  and  aspiration.  It  is  formed  with  the 
under  lip  pressed  a{r;iinst  the  edge  of  t:ie  upper  incisory  tooth. 

TFisavocal  sound,  formed  with  the  lips  contracted  as  in  the  act  of 
whistling,  and  forcing  out  the  hreath. 

Fis  a  vocal  sound,  formed  with  the  lips  and  tcelh  a  little  separated. 

Rkm  — Caro  must  be  ta'ren  in  forming  this  soun'l,  to  ooufino  th«  tip  of  the  tongue 
to  the  inner  surCnco  of  tho  under  incisory  teeth  ;  for,  if  it  is  permitted  to  riso  lo  thn 
gums  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth,  tho  sound  of  Z  will  pfa'oably  be  made  instead  of  Y> 

^,  in  zoncy  is  a  buzzing  sound,  a  compounH  of  vocality  and  aspiration.  It 
is  made  hy  pressini;  the  tip  of  the  tongue  gently  against  the  gums  of  the 
upper  incisors,  and  forcing  Out  tlie  breath. 

Z.  as  in  azure,  is  formed  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  nearly  in  the  same 
position  as  Z  in  zone,  though  drawn  a  little  farther  back,  and  somewhat 
widened,  so  as  to  enlarge  the  aperture  formed  by  its  upper  surface  atid  the 
roof  of  the  mouth,  through  which  tho  breath  is  forced. 

SECTION    III. 

ATONICS. 

§  6.  The  Atonies  or  aspirates,  beihg  destitute  of  that  quality 
of  voice  which  is  called  vocality,  ar%only  heard  in  the  whisper- 
ing voice. 

F,  like  V,  is  formed  with  the  under  lip  pressed  against  the  upper  incisory 
teeth. 

n  is  the  inceptive  part  of  a  vocal  sound,  aspirated  in  a  particular  way. 
JImixj  be  uttered  in  as  many  varieties  of  ways  ?s  there  are  vowels  in  the 
language,  each  requiring  the  same  posture  of  the  mouth,  which  tho  vowel 
itself  requires.  As  ^merely  represents  a  breathing  as  heard  in  the  sigh, 
in  spelling  phonetically  or  by  sound,  the  pupils  may  call  it  Ac — the  name 
assigned  it  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 

^is  formed  by  pressing  the  root  of  the  tongue  against  the  vail  of  the 
palate,  and  aspirating  the  vowel  u^. 

P  is  formed  by  closing  the  lips,  and  then  asperating  the  rowel  tCi. 

xS  is  a  hissing  hOund,  and  like  s  in  zone,  is  formed  with  the  tip  of  the 
tongue  pressed  gently  against  the  gums  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth.  It  is 
nearly  the  same  as  z  in  zone,  usi)irated. 

Sh  is  formed  with  the  tongue  in  the  same  position  as  z  in  azure.  Sh  is 
nearly  the  same  sound  as  z  in  azure,  aspirated. 

7"  is  formed  by  prci^sing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  gums  of  the 
upper  incisory  teeth,  and  then  aspirating  ihe  vowel  u\ 

Th,  as  i|0  thin,  like  ///  in  then,  is  ftjnned  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
pressed  against  the  upper  incisory  teeth.  It  is  nearly  the  same  sound  as 
the  siibvowel  th,  aspirated. 

Wh  is  tho  inceptive  purt  of  the  vowel  u^,  aspirated  in  a  particular  way. 
The  sound  which  is  produced  in  tho  lormation  nf  this  element  is  nearly  the 
same  as  lni\  whi.^pered.  Wh  requires  the  same  position  of  the  mouth 
that  the  vowel  W3  requires. 

It  is  not  intended  that  the  table  of  ehmentary  sounds  should  be  commit- 
ted to  memory  by  tho  pupils  ;  but  th.it  the  Teacher  should  utter  the. rounds 
accurately  in  their  elementary  character — the  pupils  uttering  them  after 
him. 


yo  analytical,  illustrative    and 

Exercises. 

In  the  following  exercises,  each  word  should  be  distinctly  and  slowly 
uttered ;  the  pupils  carefully  observing  the  postures  which  the  organs  as- 
sume in  the  utterance  of  each  element.  They  should  then  point  out  the 
Tonics,  Subtonics,  or  Atonies,  that  may  be  found  in  each  word,  as  exhibit- 
ed in  the  following 

Model.  "An  old  man  stood  at  the  gate."  An, — this  word  consists  of  two 
elementary  sounds — tonic  and-  subtonic.  A^  is  tonic,  because  it  has  the 
purest  vocality  ;  it  is  a  m  ^nothong,  because  its  radical  and  vanish  are  the 
same.  iVis  subtonic,  because  it  is  inferior  to  the  tonics,  in  vocality.  It  is 
formed  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  gums  of  the  upper 
incisory  teeth,  and  propelling  the  breath  through  the  nose ;  and  is,  there- 
fore, nasal. 

Old  consists  of  three  elementary  sounds.  0  is  tonic,  having  the  purest 
vocality,  it  is  a  triphthong,  because  it  consists  of  three  constituents — (A^ 
O'i,  ic.  L  is  subtonic,  and  is  formed  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
ag  ainst  the  gums  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth,  an^  propelling  the  breath 
through  the  mouth.  D  is  also  subtonic,  and  is  formed  by  placing  the  tongue 
in  the  same  position  as  in  forming  the  sound  of  i,  and  aspirating  the  vowel 
«3  at  the  moment  of  its  removal. 

Man  consists  of  three  elementary  sounds.  M  is  subtonic,  and  is  formed 
by  closing  the  lips,  and  prop^hng  tlie  breath  through  the  nose,  and  is, 
therefore,  nasal.  J.4  is  tonic.  N  is  subtonic.ljand  is  formed  as  described 
above. 

Stood  consists  of  four  elementary  sounds.  8  is  atonic,  because  it  is  des- 
titute of  vocality,  and  is  formed  by  gently  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
against  the  gums  of  the  upper  incisory  teeth.  T  is  also  atonic,  and  is 
formed  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue'  against  the  gums  of  the  upper 
incisory  teeth,  and  aspirating  the  vowel  u'i  at  the  moment  of  its  removal. 
00  represents  the  sound  of  «3,  and  is  a  monothong  tonic.  D  is  subtonic, 
and  is  formed  as  already  described. 

The  consists  of  two  elementary  sounds.  Th  is  subtonic,  and  is  formed 
by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  edge  of  the  upper  incisory 
teeth.     ^2,  second  sound,  is  a  monothong  tonic. 

Gate  consists  of  three  elementary  sounds.  G  is  subtonic,  and  is  formed 
by  pressing  the  root  of  the  tongue  against  the  vail  of  the  palate,  and  aspi- 
rating the  vowel  u\  A\  is  tonic,  and  is  a  diphthong  in  sound.  T  is  atonic, 
and  is  formed  as  already  described. 

Rbk. — Sach  questions  as  the  following,  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Why  is  J.4 
tonic?  "Why  &  7nonotho7ig  P  What  is  meant  by  a  radical,  and  what  by  vanish 
sound  ?     Why  is  JV  subtonic  ?    How  is  it  formed  ?     "Why  is  it  nasal  ? 

Examples  for  Practice.  • 

As  for  man  his  days  are  as  grass.  Three  pines  bend  from  its  face.  False 
"sounds  often  fall  near  him.  The  sun  shines  on  the  smooth  lake.  The 
storm  of  war  is  past.  From  your  fair  cheek  the  rose  may  fade.  Life  is 
short;  but  art  is  long.  God  set  the  bow  in  the  clouds.  Saul  died  by  his 
own  hands.  He  twists  the  texts  to  suit  the  sects.  When  he  comes,  we 
shall  hear  the  news. 


OON8TRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  71 

SECTION    IV. 

SYNTHETICAL    PROCJSSS    OF    LANGUAGE. 

§  7.  Letters  united  form  syllables,  syllables  form  words, 
words  properly  arranged,  form  sentences,  and  sentences  form 
a  discourse  or  oration. 

Analysis  of  Words. 

The  analysis  of  a  word  consists,  first,  into  resolving  it  into  its  component 
syllables,  and,  second,  each  syllable  into  the  elementary  sounds  of  which  it 
is  composed. 

A  syllable  is  a  single  vocal  impulse,  or  it  is  that  part  of  a  word  which  is 
bounded  by  a  single  radical  and  vanisli  movement  of  the  voice.  It  may 
consist  of  one  elementary  sound;  as,  t?,  e,  etc.,  or  as  many  assciY?tof  these 
elementary  sounds,  without  destroying  the  singleness  cf  the  vocal  impulse; 
as,  in  the  word  strange^  strandzh. 

A  monosyllabic  word  is  a  word  of  one  syllable;  as,  Man. 

A  dissyllabic  word  is  a  word  of  iioo  syllables ;  as,  Manly. 

A  trissyllabic  word  is  a  word  of  three  syllables  ;  as,  Manliness. 

A  polysyllabic  word  is  a  word  of  nmny  syllables  ;  as,  Ambiguity. 

ifodellst.  ^'^  Nightly.''''  This  is  a  dissyllabic  word,  because  it  consists 
of  two  syllables.  Night  is  a  syllable,  because  bounded  by  a  single  radical 
and  vanish  movement;  it  consists  of  three  elementary  sounds,  represented 
by  «.,  i,  g,  h,  and  t.  Nis  a  subtonic,  because  it  is  inferior  in  vocality  to 
the  tonics.  It  is  formed  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  gums 
of  the  upper  incisory  teeth,  and  propelling  the  breath  through  the  nose  ;  it 
is,  therefore,  nasal.  /I,  first  sound,  is  tonic,  because  it  has  the  purest  vo- 
cality,— it  is  a  diphthong  in  sound,  because  it  has  o?ie  sound  characteristic 
of  its  radical,  and  another  for  its  vanish.  T  is  atonic,  because  destitute  of 
vocality.  It  is  formed  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  gums 
of  the  upper  incisory  teetli,  and  aspirating  the  vowel  ?i3  at  the  moment  of 
its  removal.  Lp  is  a  syllable,  because  bounded  by  a  single  radical  and 
vanish  movement  of  the  voice, — it  consists  of  two  elementary  sounds,  rep- 
resented by  Zand  y.  iT  is  subtonic,  because  inferior  in  vocality — it  is 
formed  by  pressing  the  tip  of  the  tongue  against  the  gums  of  the  upper 
incisory  teeth,  and  forcing  the  breath  through  the  mouth.  F represents 
the  second  sound  of  i,  and  Is  tome,  because  it  has  the  purest  vocality, — it 
is  a  monothong,  because  its  radical  and  vanish  are  the  same. 

A  word  having  been  analyzed,  should  be  phonetically  spelled  without 
mentioning  the  name  of  any  letter ;  a.s,  Nit-li. 

The  learner  will  observe  that  g  and  h  have  been  lost  in  analysis,  since 
they  represent  no  elementary  sound. 

After  the  pupil  shall  have  been  sufficiently  drilled  in  a  full  description  of 
the  vocal  phenouicna  in  the  analysis  of  words,  as  exhibited  in  the  first  ex- 
ample, the  exercises  may  be  contracted  as  in  Model  2d. 

Model  2d.  '*  J  fan.'''  is  a  monosyllabic  word,  and  consists  of  three  ele- 
mentary sounds,  represented  by  m,  </,  and  n.  M  is  a  subtonic,  nasal  soimd, 
formtd  by  closing  the  lips  and  j)iopelling  the  breath  through  the  nose. 
A'^  ,  fourth  sound,  is  a  monothong  tonic.  N  is  a  subtonic,  nasal  sound, 
foi"mcd  by  pressing  the  Uji  of  tlie  tongue  against  the  guins  of  the  upper 
incisors,  and  forcing  the  breath  through  the  nose. 


72  analytical  illustrative  and 

Exercises. 

The  evenini^  vras  fine,  and  the  fall-orbed  moon  shone  with  uncommon 
splendor.  The  earth,  with  tcmjyests,  may  grow  dark.  Who  ever  imagined 
that  such  an  ocean  exists.  The  man  of  talents  struggles  through  difficul- 
ties severe.  He  vras  amiable,  respectable,  unbearable,  intolerable,  un- 
manageable, terrible.  We  leave  your  fore^'^s  of  leasts  for  our  iorests  of 
men.  Can  you  say  crackers,  crimo,  cruelty,  crutches  ?  It  vras  the  severest 
storm  of  the  season  ;  but  the  masts  stood  through  the  gale.  He  twists  the 
texts  to  suit  the  different  sects.  He  sawed  six,  sleek,  slim  saplings.  Over- 
whelmed with  whirlwinds  and  tempestuous  fire.  His  kindness  overwhelms 
me.  Its  poison,  through  your  veins,  will  roll,  and  darkness  overwhelm 
your  soul. .  Thou  talTcedst  of  what  thou  understoodest  not.  Thorns  and 
thistles  shall  it  bring  forth  unto  thee.  He  was  Zong,  Zcan,  and  lank,  and 
laujxhed  loudly.  Aiound  the  hearth,  the  crackling  f;iggots  blaze.  The 
heights,  depths,  and  breadths  cf  the  subject,  lie  beyond  the  utmost  reach 
of  his  intellect.  Get  thee  behind  ine,  Satan;  for  thou  savorest  not  the 
things  that  be  of  God.  The  severest  storm  that  lasts  till  morn.  From 
thy  throne  in  the  sky,  thou  looTc'st,  and  laugA'si  at  the  storm,  and  pjiid^at 
the  bolt  of  Jove. 

The  seas  shall  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decay, 
Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away ; 
But  fixed  bis  word,  his  saving  power  remains, 
Thy  realm  for  ever  lasts,  thy  own  Messiah  reigns. 

'Twas  twilight;  for  the  sunless  day  went  down. 

O'er  the  waste  of  waters,  like  a  veil. 
Which,  if  V.  ithdrawn,  would  but  disclose  the  frown 

Of  one  Vvho  hates  us. 

i?ound  and  round  the  ?'Mgged  rocks, 
The  ragged  rascal  ran. 

When  a  twisi^v  a  twisimg,  will  twist  him  a  tiDist, 
For  fw?>ting  his  twist  he  three  twines  doth  intwist ; 
But,  if  one  of  the  twines,  of  the  twist  doth  untwist, " 
*  The  twine  that  untwisteth,  untwisteth  the  ttoist. 

Rem. — Each  word  in  the  above  exerclEes,  tbould  be  first  analyzed  and  synthetiiffed, 
or  spelled  phonetically ;  eanh  senten,c6  should  then  be  read  slowly  and  distinctly, 
with  special  attention  to  words  and  elements  marked  iu  italics. 


CHAPTER    III. 

ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


t 

§  1.  English  Grammar  is  the  science  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. It  comprises  both  a  Science  and  an  Art ;  as  an  Art, 
it  teaches  how  the  Engl  sh  language  should  be  written  and 
spoken  ;  as  a  Science,  it  teaches  why  one  form  of  speech  should 
be  used  rather  than  another.  Art  tells  hoiv — /Science  tells  why. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.        '  *        13 

The  English  Grammar  well  understood  both  as  a  Science  and 
an  Art,  will  enable  any  one  to  speak  and  write  the  language 
correctly. 

§  2.  Grammar  is  divided  into  four  parts,  viz. :  OethoqraphY, 
Etymology,  Syntax  and  Pkosody. 

Orthography  teaches  the  art  of   spelling  correctly.     This 
must  be  clTiefly  learned  from  the  Spelling-book  and  Dictionary. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  their  va- 
rious inflections,  and  the  derivation  of  words.  • 

Syntax  teaches  the  correct  construction  and  arrangement  of 
sentences.  ^ 

Prosody  teaches  the  '^\i%t pronunciation  of  sentences,  and  the 
rules  of  versification. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

ORTUOGRAPHT. 


§1.  ORTHoGRAniY  treats  of  the  nature  and  properties  of 
letters,  and  of  the  art  of  spelling  words  correctly. 

Letters  are  the  elements  of  written  language,  and  the  representatives  of 
vocal  sounds.     Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  a  word  by  its  j)roper  letters. 

Rules  foji  Spelling. 

Such  is  the  irregularity  of  the  English  orthography  and  the  diversified 
ways  of  spelling  words,  that  a  great  deal  cannot  be  done  in  acquiring  the 
art  of  spelling  by  means  of  rules;  yet,  as  some  letters  arc  changed,  some 
rejected,  and  others  added  in  foiniing  derivative  words,  by  means  of  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes  to  their  respective  ladicals,  it  is  believed  the  following 
rules  will  be  useful  :  i 

Eadicfd  words  are  roots  from  which  others  are  formed  or  derived.  They 
arc  couiparativcly  few.  Derivative  words  arc  such  as  are  formed  from  rad- 
ical words.  They  are  ver}'  numerous ;  many  are  frequently  derived  from 
the  same  root ;  as,  from  man,  come manli/^  manliness,  manful,  vianfully,  etc. 

Rule  I. 

M'^nosyllabic  radicals,  ending  in/,  Z,  or  8,  generally  double  the  final  oon- 
soniint  when  it  is  preceded  by  a  single  vowel ;  as  hill,  staff,  pass. 

E.\C*<-'''nii!« — nf,  if\  in   .T!,   /;/•*    ^rns,  y,:s,  his,  ""'•  '"  ""'^  '/•"«. 

Rule  li. 

Those  mono«yI"nMc  rndicals  which  end  in  any  consonant  except/  /,  or«, 

preceded  by  a  ^i^  ■' ■   -r i     '  •■*      •  i  -  .  ■    .'.):,    .i  ,    ^,  .  i    ,..,..    .-..,,.  .,g^ 

man,  hat,  sit,  ei  . 
ExceptionB— A«/r,  adJ,  Out/,  egg,  odd,  err,  inn,  Lunn,  purr,  buzz. 


V4         ♦  AWAtrVtOAt,   llLtTSTRATITB     AND 

Rule  III. 

The  fincal  «  of  a  radical  word,  is  usually  rejected  when  the  suflSx  com- 
mences with  a  vowel ;  as,  7nove,  mov-ing,  aale,  sal-able,  please,  pleas-ure. 

Exceptions — dyeing,  to  color,  singeing,  to  scorch,  retain  the  «  to  distinguish  them 
from  dying,  to  expire,  and  singing. 

Rule  IV. 

The  final  «  of  a  radical  word,  is  generally  retained  when  the  suflBx  com- 
mences with  a  consonant ;  as,  hope — hope-les»\  move — move-ment. 

Rule  V. 

Words  ending  in  Me,  drop  te  before  the  suflBx  cy  ;  as,  private — priv-acp. 

Rule  VI. 

Words  ending  in  ant  or  ent,  lose  the  t  upon  receiving  the  suflBx  ce  or  ct/; 
»s frequent,  frequency  ;  eminent,  eminence  ;  arrogant,  arrogan-ey. 

Rule  VII. 

When  words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  comonant,  take  the  suflBxes,  ea, 
est,  ed,  ness,  and  merit,  the  y  is  changed  into  i ;  &s,Jiy,  flies ;  happy,  hap- 
pier, happiiest,  happiness;  carry,  carried y  accompaiiy ,  accompaniment \ 
but,  if  the  y  is  preceded  by  a  voioel,  it  is  retained ;  as,  luy,  huy-er  ;  valley^ 
valleys. 

Rule  VIII. 

When  words  ending  in  y,  take  the  suffix  ing,  the  y  is  retained ;  fly,  fly- 
ing ;  try,  try-ing. 

Rule  IX. 

The  final  consonant  of  a  monosyllable,  if  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  is 
doubled  before  a  suflBx  beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as,  iag,  lag-gage ;  spot, 
tpot-ted. 

Rule  X. 

When  radicals  which  end  in  e,  take  the  suffix  ish  or  ing,  the  e  is  drop- 
ped; as,  White,  whi-tish  ;  Blue,  ihie-ish  ;  Place,  plac-ing. 

Rule   XI. 

The  final  consonant  of  any  word  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  if  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel,  is  doubled  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as, 
Delar,  debar-red;  Occur,  occur -rence. 

Rule   XII. 

The  final  consonant,  when  not  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  or  when  the 
word  is  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  remains  single  upon  the  addition 
of  a  suffix ;  as,  Spoil,  spoil-ing  ;  Suffer,  suffer-ed. 

RtJiE    XIII. 

The  final  i  of  a  radical  word  is  omitted  when  the  silffix  begins  with  i  ; 
as,  Alkali,  alkalise  ;  Dei,  De-ifin. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    ORAMMIR. 


RlLi;   XIV 


The  final  7/  of  a  radical  word,  when  precede*!  b}'  the  letter  C,  is  general- 
ly rejected  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  or  o  ;  as,  Purity^  j)urit-an; 
lelicity,  /elieit-ous. 

Rule  XV. 

Words  ending  in/or  fe  commonly  change  /"into  v,  when  a  suffix  is  ad- 
ded, beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as,  Mischief,  mischie-vous  ;  Wife,  wines. 

Rule  XVI, 

"Words  ending  in  er  or  <?r,  often  drop  the  «  or  o  before  suffix  commencing 
with  a  vowel ;  as,  Victor,  viclrix  ;  Wonder,  wondrous. 

Rule  XVII. 

Words  ending  in  le,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  drop  these  letters  upon 
receiving  the  suffix  Zy;  as.  Able,  ably  ;  Idle,  idly. 

Rule  XVIII. 

Words  ending  in  hlc,  before  th-c  suffixes  ity  and  itie^,  take  t  b«tweoa 
the  letter  b  and  I ;  as,  Able,  ability,  abilities. 

Rule  XIX. 

Compound  words  are  generally  spelled  in  the  same  manner  as  simple 
words  of  which  they  are  coKiposad;  as,  Glass-house,  shy-light,  there-by, 
here-after.  Many  words  endini:  in  double  I,  are  exceptions  to  the  general 
rule;  as.  Already,  welfare,  Christntas,  etc. 

Rem. — After  these  rules  shuU  have  been  committed  to  memory,  the  pupils  should 
bo  exereieed  ia  spelling  under  each  rule  till  thoy  become  familiar  with  its  uppliention. 


CHAPTER    v.. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


§  1.  Etymology  treats  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their 
various  modifications,  and  derivations, 

§  2.  Words  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  common  consent 
of  men  as  signs  of  ideas. 

§  3,  Words,  in  respect  of  their  formation,  are  either  Radi- 
cal or  Derivative,  Simple  or  Compound. 

A  radical  word,  being  the  root  from  which  others  are  formed,  can  not  be 
reduced  to  any  simpler  word  ;  as,  Man,  act. 

A  derivative  word  is  formed  fiom  some  radical  word  by  means  of  a  pre- 
fix or  suffix;  as,  Man-/aZ,  trans  aci. 


1&  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE    AKD 

A  simple  word  consists  of  oa«  vp-ord  only.  It  may  be  either  radical  or 
derivative ;  as,  Act,  actor. 

A  compound  word  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  words  united  by  a  hy- 
phen ;  aSy  Dealh-UJce,  all-wise,  glass-house,  etc. 

§  4.  Words,  in  respect  of  their  form,  are  either  Declinable 
or  Indeclinable. 

A  declinable  word  is  one  whose  form  varies  on  assuming  different  gram- 
matical relations  in  a  sentence ;  as,  Re,  his,  him. 

An  indeclinable  word  undergoes  no  change  of  form,  whatever  may  be  its 
grammatical  relations ;  as,  Good,  hadly,  etc. 

§  5.  Words,  in  rgspect  to  their  office  or  use,  are  dividod  into 
several  classes  called  Parts  of  Speech. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

pLASSIPICATION    OF    VfORDS. 

§  1.  Words  are  naturally  divided  into  two  classes — Primary 
and  Secondary. 

The^rsi^  class  consists  of  words  which  are  essential  to  the  lansruage  of 
mei},  on  which  other  words  depend,  or  to  which  they  bear  a  branch  relation. 
To  this  class  belong  the  noun,  and  verl);  for  without  them  no  sentence  can 
exist,  and  with  them  a  complete  sentence  can  be  formed;  as,  "Rivers 
flow."  But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  verb  itself  is,  in  some  de- 
gree, ."secondary  to  the  noun  ;  for  the  noun  or  name  is  the  only  word  which 
can  make  sense  of  itself;  the  verb,  nevertheless,  should  be  regarded  as  a 
primary  part  of  speech.  The  noun  being  the  first  and  leading  part  of 
speech,  may  be  considered  as  bearing  a  trunk  relation  to  all  the  other  parts 
of  speech  ;  and  consequently  all  the  others  bear  a  branch  relation  to  it, 

§  2.  The  second  class  consists  of  words  of  secondary  or  subor- 
dinate use,  or  such  as  are  dependent  on  other  words  in  con- 
struction.    Of  these  there  are  seve»xl  species. 

1.  Words  which  supply  the  place  of  other  words,  are  called  iJ'i'onouns  or 
subsiitutes. 

2.  "Words,  which  merely  limit  the  meaning  of  nouns,  are  called  articles. 

3.  Words,  which  express  the  qualities  of  things,  and  which  are  attached 
to  the  names  of  those  things,  are  called  afJjcr,tives.  Words,  which  point  out 
nouns  by  some  distinct  specification,  are  called  specifying  ailjeetices. 

4.  Words,  whieli  are  derived  from  verbs,  and  depend  on  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns in  construction,  are  c?iY\eA  part iciples. 

^  5.  Words,  which   modify  the  sense  of  other  words  by  expressing  the 
manner  of  action,  or  degree  of  quality,  are  called  adterls. 

6.  Words,  which  are  placed  before  other  woi  ds,  and  ahow  the  relation 
between  them  and  those  words  which  precede  in  construction,  are  called 
prepo'Mions. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    ORAMMAK..  V7 

7.  Words,  which  join  together  parts  of  a  sentence,  or  parts  of  a  dis- 
course, in  a  regular  construction,  arc  called  conjunctions. 

8.  Words,  which  are  throvt'n  between  the  pirts  of  sentences,  to  express 
emotion  or  feeling,  are  called  interjections.  But  as  these  words  have  no 
grammatical  dependence  on  otlier  words,  in  construction,  they  can  hardly 
be  said  to  belong  to  icritten  language. 

According  to  the  above  scheme,  it  will  be  perceived  that  there  are  ten 
parts  of  speech  in  the  English  language,  namely, — the  Nount,  Vekb,  Pko- 
NOUN,  Akticlk,  Adjective,  PAKTicirLE,  Adverb,  Pkepositiox,  Conjunction, 
and  Interjection. 

Rem. — It  is  not  pretended  that  this  claspiiioafion  is  prhnnry.  but  it  i<!  convenient. 
A  primnry  cl.issilication  would  plioi'  the  w^'jc/e  with  the  adjective,  the  pronoun  with 
the  no'tK,  or  naino.  and  iho  participl6  with  the  verb. 


ClIArTEU    VII. 

NOUNS. 

§  1.  Noux,  from  the  Latin  nomen — a  name,  is  the  name  of 
any  thing  that  exists,  Avhether  material,  or  iflainaterial ;  as, 
man,  wood,  hope,  virtue. 

Nouns  are  of  two  kinds — common  and  proper. 

Common  nouns  are 'the  names  of  a  s^ji^c/^s  or  class  \  as,  vroman,  ,tree, 
river. 

Proper  nouns  are  the  names  of  particular  individuals  ;  as,  Marj',  Dela- 
ware. 

A  noun  comprising  several  persons  in  one  collective  body  is  called  a  col- 
lective noun ;  as,  Congress,  family,  army.        , 

§  2.  Gender,  person,  number  and  case  belong  to  nouns. 
§  3.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  sex. 

As  tliere  are  but  two  sexes,  noun?!,  strictly  speaking,  have  but  two  gen- 
ders, but  it  is  thought  to  be  convenient  in  parsing  to  apply  four,  namely, 
Masculine,  FiMiiinino,  JSTeutcr,  and  Common. 

The  Jftsculine,  froui  the  Latin  mud — a  male,  includes  all  males  ;  as,  man, 
prince. 

Tlie  Feminine,  from  the  htiixnfemina,  a  woman,  includes  all  females;  as, 
woman.  t;irl. 

The  Neuter  includes  all  which  are  neither  males  or  females ;  as,  book, 
hat. 

N  iiiis  which  .are  equally  apph'wl  to  both  fiexe?,  are  called  common*  gen 
dcr  ;  a.s,  triend,  child,  cousin. 

♦  Nentcr  and  common,  rb  npjplicd  lo  ri-ndfr,  .ire  not  important,  einco  the  neuter  Is  no 
gender,  and  the  common  is  citlier  masculine  or  feminine. 


?8  AWAlYWOAi,    IlLUiSTRATlVE    AHD 

t 

PERSON. 
§  4.  Person  distinguishes  the  relation  of  a  noun  to  the  speaker. 

Nouns  have  three  persons — the  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

The  First  person  deno,tes  the  spea.lcer, — the  Second  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  to, — and  the  Third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of, 
or  about. 

NUMBER. 

§  5.  Number  is  the  distinction  of  unity  and  'plurality. 

Nouns  have  two  numbers — the  Singular  and  Plural. 
The  Singular  denotes  but  one  ;  as,  a  book. 
The  Plural  more  than  one ;  as,  books. 

CASE. 

§  6.  Case,  from  eado,  to  fall,  means  state  or  condition.  Case 
distinguishes  the  relation  of  a  noun  to  a  verb,  preposition,  par- 
ticiple, or  some  other  noun. 

Nouns  have  three  cases — the  Nomihative,  Possessive  and  Objective. 

The  JS/'ominative  case  indicates  the  actor  or  siibject  of  the  verb  ;  as,  "  The 
&(?y  runs."     "e/awe  was  hurt." 

The  Possessive  case  indicates  possession  and  ownership  ;  as,  "  The  hoy^s 
hat." 

The  01>jective  case  indicates  the  object  of  an,  action  or  a  relation  ;  as, 
"  Charles  struck  John  on  the  head." 

Rem.  1. — NouDB  may  be  divided  into  Material  and  Immaterial,  Abstract  and  Sub- 
stantial. 

Rem.  2. — A  Material  noun  is  composed  of  matter;  as,  wood,  atone,  iron,  water, 
etc. 

Rum.  3 — An  Immaterial  noun  is  not  composed  of  matter;  as,  spirit,  vanity 
pride. 

Ri-M.  4. — Abstract  nouns  are  the  names  of  qualities,  abstracted  or  considered 
apart  from  the  objects  to  which  they  belong;  as,  whiteness,  coldness,  roundness, 
honesty,  etc. 

Rem.  5. — Substantial  nouns  are  such  as  denote  real  existence,  whether  ^material  or 
imrnuterial,  as  opposed  to  the  mere  creatures  of  the  imagination  or  s\ich  as  denote 
the  absence  or  non-existence  of  any  thing;  as,  body,  spirit,  etc. 

Model.  "  Raleigh  is  the  capital  of  North-  Carolina."  Raleigh  is  a  Proper 
noun,  of  the  Neuter  gender,  Third  person,  Singular,  and  in  the  Nomina^ 
tive  case  to  is,  according  to  Rule  1.  /*  is  an  Irregular,  Intransitive  verb, 
Indicative  mode,  Present  tense,  and  is  of  the  third  person,  Singular  num- 
ber, agreeing  with  its  Nominative  Raleigh,  according  to  Rule  6.  Capital 
is  a  common  noun  of  the  Neuter  gender,  Third  person,  Singular  number, 
and  of  the  Nominative  case,  predicated  of  Raleigh,  according  to  Rale  2. 
Of  is  a  preposition,  and  connects  capital  and  Jforth  Carolina,  and  shows 
the  relation  between  them.  North  Carolina  is  a  Proper  noun  of  the  Neu- 
ter gender.  Third  person.  Singular  number,  in  the  Oljecti'oe  case,  and 
governed  by  of,  according  to  Rule  21. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  .79 

Rem. — Parsing  consists,  first,  in  naming  the  part  «f  speech  or  class  of  words  to 
which  the  word  belongs;  secondlj,  in  naming  tho  propertioc!  or  accidents  belonging 
to  it;  and,  thirdly,  in  pointing  out  the  relations  which  it  sustains  to  other  words  in 
a  sentence — such  as  government,  agreement,  modifii'ation,  etc. 

Exercises. 

Thomas  is  a  boy.  George  went  to  Cincinnati  in  a  Steamboat.  The  cat 
scratched  the  dog.  The  sun  gives  light.  Fishes  swim  in  the  sea.  The 
snail  does  not  move  quite  so  fast  as  the  eagle  or  hawk.  The  Ohio  is  a 
beautiful  river.  I,  John,  saw  the  Holy  City.  James,  where  is  John  ? 
James'  book  lies  on  the  table.  New  York  is  a  large  city.  The  Neuse  is  a 
navigable  river.  Adam  named  all  creatures.  The  fire  burns  wood.  I,  Paul, 
am  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  moon  shines  by  night.  Honesty  is 
the  best  policy.  Whiteness  is  the  name  of  a  quality.  That  law  is  a  nul- 
lity. The  army  has  encamped.  Children  play  on  the  green  grass.  The 
nation  mourns.     Jesus  fed  the  multitude. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

VERBS. 


§  1,  A  Verb  is  a  Avord  which*  asserts  or  affirms  ;  as,  "  The 
river  floivs." 

Verbs  are  divided  into  Tfansitive  and  Intranslthe,  Regular  and  Irregu- 
lar^ Auxiliary  and  Defective. 

A  Transitive  Verb  has  the  power  to  affect  an  object ;  as,  "  Jane  writes 
letters." 

Transitive  Verhs  are  distinguished  by  voice.]  A  Transitive  Verb  is  in 
the  active  voice,  when  its  nominative  performs  the  action;  as,  '^Brutus 
slew  Ciesar."  A  Transitive  verb  is  in  the  passive  voice  when  its  nominative 
receives  the  action  which  it  asserts  ;  as,  "  Ocu.vzr  teas  slain  by  ^rutus." 

A  verb  is  Intransitive  when  it  has  no  power  to  affect  an  object;  as,  "The 
hirdjlcs." 

A  verb  is  Regular  when  its  past  tense  and  perfect  .participle  can  be 
formed  by  annexing  ed  or  d  to  the  present  tense  ;  as,  walk.;  walked ;  love, 
loved. 

A  verb  is  Irregular  when'  its  past  tense  and  perfect  participle  are  formed 
by  changing  the  form  of  the  primitive  word ;  as,  see,  saw,  seen. 

Av.riliary  verbs  help  other  verbs  to  form  ]\L)des  and  Tenses ;  as,  do,  be, 
will,  have,  ma3%  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  shall,  and  should. 

A  Defective  verb  can  not  be  conjugated  through  all  the  Modes  and  Tenses ; 
as,  ought. 

Verbs  have  Mode,  Tense,  Person  and  Number. 

*  The  verb  ia  .ilso  used  in  tsking  questions,  coumauding,  etc. ;  but  still  it  it?  regarded  as 
expressing  something  of  the  nature  of  an  affirmation. 

t  By  voice  is  meant  the  iuncction  or  form  of  the  verb,  which  akows  the  relation  of  the 
subject  to  the  action  expressed  by  it. 


80 


ANALYTICAL    ILLUSTRATIV'S    AN& 


SECTION  I. 


MODES, 


§  2.  Mode,  from  tlie  Latin  modus — manner,  is  the  manner 
of  representing  affirmation. 

Verbs  have  five  modes — the  Indicative,  the  Subjunctive,  the  Potential, 
the  Imperative,  and  the  Infinitive. 

The  Indicative  Mode  affirmr,  [lOHitively  and  without  limitation  ;  as,  ''She 
loves." 

The  Suhjtinetive  Mode  afSrms  a  thing  .«5uhject  *o  some  condition  or  limir 
tatityi ;  as,  "If  Eliza  Ktudy,  she  will  improve." 

The  Potential  Mrnfe  expresses  possibility,  lihertj',  power,  -will,  or  obliga- 
tion ;  as,  "  It  may  rain,"  etc. 

The  Imperative  IioJe  is  used  for  commanding,  exhorting,  entreating,  or 
permitting  ;  as,  "  Obey  my  precepts,"  etc. 

The  Ivfivitite  Moiie  does  not  limit  the  affirmation  to  any  particular  sub- 
ject; ap,  "Tow.alk," 

The  Mode  of  the  verb  nripc;  from  the  various  tvaj^s  in  vrhich  affirmation 
is  made  concerning  the  subject. 

The  pupil's  perception  of  Mode  may  be  aided  by  an  ocular  illustration. 
This  is  done  in  Biaijram  No.  3. 


3"  -Subjuncl 


LLtfc>jii.Jb:"'ik*£iii"J'Jil-'~>- 


The  perpendicular  o./.i  ...r;  represents  th'e  s»uV)joct  of  aiSrmation. 

Figure  1  represents  what  is  affirmed  indicatively  ;  as  the  figure  is  in 
juxta  position  with  the  subject,  it  shows  that  whatever  i^  indicatively  pre- 
dicated, belongs  absolutely  to  the  subject;  as,  "The  bird  flies.'''  "Job 
was  patient." 

Figure  2  illustrates  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  or  what  is  predicated  with 
some  limitation  ;  as  but  one  of  the  parailei  lines*  of  which  the  figure  is 
composed,  is  in  juxta  position  with  the  subject,  it  shows  that  what  is  af- 
firmed of  the  subject,  may  or  may  not  btlong  to  it;  as,  "If  Job  was  pa- 
tient."    "If  the  bird  llv." 


CONSTRUCTIVB    ORAMMAR.  81 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  Potential  Mode,  or  what  is  affirmed  potentially ; 
as  the  fifjure  is  not  in  juxta  position  ^vitl^  the  subject,  it  shows  that  what- 
ever is  atFirined  potentially,  docs  not  belong  absolutely  to  the  subject,  but 
only  the  probability,  power,  lit)erty,  necessity,  etc.,  of  action  or  quality  is 
predicated;  as,  "The  bird  can  tly."     "John  may  be  good." 

Figure  4  illustrates  the  Imperative  Mode,  or  what  is  affirmed  imperatively. 
In  this  Mode,  the  subject  is  commanded  to  actor  to  possess  a  quality ;  it  is 
clear  that  at  the  time  of  command,  the  action  or  quality  required  does  not 
exist  in  the  subject,  but,  as  it  is  presumed  that  the  speaker  has  power  to 
enforce  obedience,  there  is  a  very  strong  probability  that  what  is  command- 
ed will  be  performed.  The  figure,  therefore,  though  not  in  juxta  position 
with  the  subject,  is  made  to  approach  very  near  it;  as,  "  Obey  my  pre- 
cepts." 

Figure  5  illustrates  the  Infinitive  Mode  ;  as  the  figure  is  not  connected 
with  the  subject,  biit  with  the  part  of  the  diagram  which  represents  the 
pie'licate,  it  shows  that  the  Infinitive  never  makes  a  direct  affirmation  con- 
cerning the  subject,  but  depends  upon  some  other  element  in  construction  ; 
as,  "  lie  went  to  join  the  army." 

In  this  example  it  is  clear  to  join  has  no  constructive  relation  with' the 
subject  he;  as,  he  to  join  would  make  bad  soynse. 


SECTION   II. 

TENSE . 

§3.  Tknse,  from  the  Latin  fcj^^jtfs,  means  time.  Tense,  tlien, 
is  the  distinction  of  time. 

V.rhs  hov(!  six  tenses — the  Piiesknt,  tiie  Pas"^,  the  Puufkct,  the  Pluper- 
fect, the  FcTUiiE,  nnd  tho  FuTruu-PEKKKCT.  ' 

Tlie  Present  tense  denotes  present  time;  as,  ''I  write." 

'J'he  Pii-st  tunse  denotes  simply  past  tiniv  ;  as,  "  I  wrote." 

The  Perfect  tense  denotes  what  is  past  and  finished,  but  is  also  connected 
with  the  present  time;  a.s,  "I  have  written." 

The  Pluperfect  tense  denotes  time  which  is  not  simply  past,  hut  prior  to 
*some  otlier  time  which  is  also  [last ;  at^,  "  I  had  wntcen  the  letter  before 
the  mail  arrived." 

The  Future  tense  denotes  simply  future  time  ;  as,  "  I  shall  write." 

The  Future- Perfect  ten.se  denotes  an  action  that  will  be  ])ast  at  or  hefore 
A  future  time  specified;  as,  "  1  shall  have  liuislied  the  work  by  the  appoint- 
ed time." 

The  pupi"s  perception  of  the  divi.sion  of  time,  as  indicated  by  the  tenses 
of  the  Veil),  may  be  greatly  ait^ed  by  Diagram  No.  4,  which  should  be 
drnwn  upon  the  Ulackboard,  and  fully  explained. 

If  there  is  sufficient  rcom  on  the  board,  the  Diagram  should  remain  on 
it,  that  the  pupil  may  compare  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb,  which  he 
may  be  paising,  with  that  niarkcd  upon  the  boaid.  This  will  not  only  give 
the  pupil  a  cleiirer  idea  of  time,  but  it  will  also  make  a  much  more  lasting 
impression  on  the  memory. 

The  space  included  by  the  vertical  lines  (1)  represents  present  time. 

The  f-p ice,  on  the  lelt  of  the  vertical  lines,  represents  past  time,  and  that 
on  the  riglit  of  the  vertical  lines,  represents  future  time. 


82 


ANALYTIOAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE     AND 


Figure  2,  which  consists  of  but  one  line,  having  no  connection  with  the 
Present,  illustrates  the  Past  tense  of  the  verb.  This  tense  is  properly  used 
in  speaking  and  writing,  when  both  the  event  and  the  period  of  time  in 
which  it  occurred  are  past ;  as,  "Philosophers  made  great  discoveries  last 
century." 


p,.& 

■  e             5        \ 
.      6  •  \ 

or  end. 

, 

-   ;         ■    ..         ..,_._..  ...- '. 

Figure  3,  v»'hich  consists  of  two  parallel  lines,  illustrates  the  Perfect 
tense.  This  tense  embraces  a  period  of  time  which  is  not  only  connected 
with  the  present,  but  frequently  extends  into  the  future,  as  shown  by  the 
first  line  in  the  figure.  This  period,  as  a  whole,  consists  of  three  compo- 
nent parts;— .the  Event  part,  marked  E,  w'hich  is  past,  the  Speaking  part, 
marked  S,  v^•hich  is  present,  is  the  time  occupied  in  uttering  the  sentence, 
and  the  Post-speaking  part,  marked  P,  which  is  future,  denotes  that  portion 
of  the  period  of  time,  subsequent  to  the  uttering  of  the  sentence.  But  the 
period  embraced  by  this  tense  of  the  verb,  sometimes  only  approaches  the 
Present,  as  shown'by  the  second  parallel  line;  this  is  the  case  when  the, 
speaker  refers  to  all  the  past  part  of  his  lift; ;  as,  "  /  ham  never  seen  trees  ^ 
so  tall." 

This  tense  is  correctly  used  in  speaking  aiui  writing,  when  the  period  of 
time  in  which  the  event  occurred,  is  connected  with  the  Present;  as,  "I 
hare  studied  hard  th\stoeeh" 

Fif'Ajrc  4,  which  consists  of  two  lines  connected,  illustrates,  the  Pluper- 
fect tense. 

When  two  past  events  arc  connected  in  sense,  the  Pluperfect  is  correctly 
employed  in  the  prior  past  of  the  two  events  ;  as,  "  The  thief  had  escaped 
before" the  goods  were  missed."  That  these  two  ai'e  connected  in  sense,  is 
obvious;  for  when  the  former  is  uttered,  the  piind  is  so  much  under  the 
influence  of  the  expectation  of  the  latter,  that  it  is  disappointed  if  it  is 
withheld.  "The  thief  had  esoaped"!— and  wh;a  else?  before  the  goods 
were  missed. 

Figure  5,  which  consists  of  a  single  line,  illustrates  the  Future  tense. 

This  shows  that  this  tense  of  the  Verb  denotes  future  time  siipply,  hav- 
ing no  connection  with  any  event  or  time.  This  tense  is  correctly  used 
when  future  time  is  simply  indic."ited. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  83 

Figure  6,  which  consists  of  two  lines  connected,  iUustrates  the  Future- 
Perfect  tense. 

When  two  future  events  are  connected  in  construction,  thi'?  tense  is  cor- 
recti}' used  in  the  prior  future  of  these  two  events;  as,  "John  icill  have 
completed  his  task  by  the  nppointed  time. 

This  tense  is  called  Future-Perfect,  because  the  action  or  event  will  bo 
completed  at  or  Icforc  the  post  future  event  with  which  it  is  connected. 

SECTION    III. 

PERSON    AND    NUMBER.  » 

§  4.  Person  and  Number  are  not  mdejjenderU pj'opcrties  of  the 
Verb,  for  the  verb  depends  upon  its  nominative  for  these  pro- 
perties. Hence,  in  ol*der  to  know  the  person  and  number  of 
the  verb,  you  must  look  to  its  nominative. 

The  variations  which  the  verb  undergoes,  takes  place  principally  in  the 
Present  tense,  and  are  called  pei'soual  terminations.  A  nominative  of  the 
second  person  singular,  solemn  style,  requires  the  verb  to  end  in  t,  st,  or 
est;  but  the  same  nominiitive,  in  familiar  style,  does  not  require  the  verb 
to  assume  these  terminations  ;  bnt  the  verb  generally  takes  the  plural  form. 

Some  good  writers,  hoivever,  associate  a  verbof  the  singular  form  with 
such  a  nominative,  in  the  past  tonse  ;  as,  *' Withers,  Where  was  you  standing 
during  the  transaction  ?"' 

A  nominative  of  the  third  per.son,  singular,  familiar  style,  requires  the 
verb  to  assume  s  or  es  for  its  personal  terminations,  and,  in  the  solemn 
style,  tJi  or  eth. 

The  plural  nominative  of  any  person   clears   the  verb  of  these  tt^mina-  ■ 
tions,  and  generally  a  nominative  of  the  first  person  singular  has  the  same 
effect. 

Rev.  I. — Tho  gecond  ppr.-on  singul.ar,  solemn  style,  requires  the  variation  of  the 
verb  in  the  past  tense,  ns  vrell  as  in  the  present;  '•  Thou  knewesf  that  I  was  an  aus- 
tere njsn."  "  Thou  m'(7/A-(y/.9<  abroad  before  thou  icasZ  able."  Tho  diffi(^ulty  of  ut- 
tering such  torrainations,  especially  in  in e  past  tense  of  regular  verb.'f,  is  no  doubt 
one  of  the  leading  causes  which  has  led  to  their  disoontitiuance  in  familiar  style. 
Even  the  society  of  Friends,  who  conscientiously  adhere  to  the  solemn  style,  has,  in 
a  great  measure,  rejected  those  terminations  in  f.imili.-ir  intercourse;  as,  "Thou  did 
put  thy  trust."  "  When  thon  was  here.,"  etc.  Those  of  them  who  have  less  gram- 
inatic.-d  attainments,  frequently  substitute  the  objeotivo  case  thee  for  the  nominative 
thou,  and  associate  Vvitli  it  a  ve  b  of  the  third  person  singular  of  tha  present,  a,a 
well  as  the  past  tense :  a<>,  "  Is  thee  well  ?"     •'  Did  thef  go  to  church  ?" 

Rkm.  2. — When  anxiliarios  are  employed,  thoy  always  undergu  the  variations  in- 
stead of  the  principal  verb;  as,  '•  Thou  who  hast  been  a  witneKs  of  the  fact,* caws^ 
state  it."  When  the  verb  do  is  used  as  the  principal  verb,  it  takes  tho  termination 
est;  as,  "When  thi;u  doest  alms,"  etc.;  but,  when  it  is  used  us  an  auxiliary,  it 
takes  the  termination  al;  as,  "  Dost  thou  not  behold,  Malvina,  a  rock  with  its  head 
of  heath." 

Rem  3. — Those  auxiliaries,  used  to  form  the  potential  mode,  do  not  vary  to  agree 
with  any  noijiinjiiivp.  exccnt  n  ndininativo  of  the  second  )>('rson  singtdar,  soUinn 
style;  hnt  mns I  ;  as,  '|Thou  must  gu"     S^  shonlJ  be  u^id, 

and  not  fsf.  a  •  Thuu  mightst,  couldst,  wiildst,  or  slwuldst 

Kkm.  4. — Tbo -i>lemn  style  is  used  in  lb  i  Holy  Scriptures  in  addresses  t-^  the 
Deitv,  and  is  penerBJIy  prolerred  in  poetry.  It  is  aluo^sed,  nc  has  already  been  in. 
tim'itod,  by  Iho  society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  fr'iin  cuuseientious  scruples,  nor 
should  they  be  censured  for  this,  bat,  on  the  contrary,  rather  praised. 


84  A>JXLTTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVB    AND 

SECTION   IV. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE   VERB. 

Authors  differ  very  much  with  respect  to  the  classification  of  the  Tcrb.  That  given' 
by  Mr.  Murray  is  the  most  common.  It  divides  verbs  into  three  classes,  viz.,  Active, 
Passive,  and  Neuter.  The  Neuter  verb  in  this  classification  embraces  all  verbs,  the 
passive  excepted,  which  have  no  power  to  effect  an  object.  But  many  of  these  verba 
possess  the  highest  degree  of  action,  ana  flatly  contradict  Mr.  M.'s  definition  of  a 
neuter  verb,  viz.,  ''A  verb  neuter  erpr«s«es  neither  action  nor  passion,  but  being,  or 
a  state  of  being."  "  The  horse  rz/zis."  "  The  bird  _^i<-s."  Tell  the  pupil  that  runs 
and  flies  are  neuter  verbs,  and,  as  sach,  express  no  actven,  and  you  will  contradict 
the  plainest  Svidence  of  his  senses,  and  introduce  darkness  and  confusion  into  all 
his  ideas  of  action. 

Rem.  2.— Others  have  divided  the  verb  into  four  classes,  viz..  Active  Tnnsitive, 
Active  Intranfitive,  Passive  and  Neuter.  This  classification  is  preferable  to  the 
former;  but  by  no  means  free  from  objections.  It  is  no  easy  task,  even  by  those 
skilled  in  language,  to  draw  ihe  lino  of  demarcation  between  tho  intransitive  and 
neuter  verbs.  "  The  child  wept  itself  sick  ;  but  it  slept  a  short  nap,  and  slept  itself 
well  again ;"  and  yet  slept  is  called  a  neuter  verb. 

Rem.  3. — Some,  perceiving  the  dilSculties  with  which  these  theories  are  encum- 
bered, have,  with  one  fell  stroke,  swept  away  all  division,  and  clothed  all  verbs, 
without  exception,  with  a  transitive  power.  It  is  natural  for  man  to  run  from  one 
extreme  to  another;  hence  the  difficulty  in  efi'ecting  any  reformation,  of  keeping 
within  its  proper  limits. 

Rem.  4. — The  classification  which  we  have  adopted,  and  which  recognizes  but  two 
classes  of  the  verb,  viz..  Transitive  and  Intransitive,  if  not  wholly  free  from  objec- 
tions, appears  to  us  ta  be  decidedly  the  best,  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  most  simple,  and 
EufiBcientiy  comprehensive. 

Re:m.  6. — Nothing  can  be  more  obvious  than  the  fact  that  every  verb  must  either 
be  transitive  or  intransitive  ,  it  either  has  the  power  to  eflfect  an  object,  or  it  has 
not.  Where^  then,  is  the  necessity  for  Neuter  and  Passive  verbs.  Thera  \i  nothing 
in  nature  which  is  perfectly  quiescent — not  a  sinjrle  particle  of  matter  that  is  not 
acted  upon  by  principles  which  necessarily  produce  motion  •  then  we  need  no  class 
of  verbs  to  affirm  what  does  not  e.xist,  or  what  is  not  the  fact.  "  But  they  seem  to 
be  at  rest."  Why  should  we  cavil  about  what  seems  to  be,  when  we  know  what  it. 
t- As  to  the  paflsive  verb,  it  is  substantially  transitive,  according  to  Mr.  Murray's 
own  definition.  "A  verb  passive,"  says  he,  "  espresses  a  passion,  or  a  sufl'erin  j,  or 
the  recsiving  of  an  action  ;  and  necessarily  implies  an  object  acted  upon,  and  an 
agent  bj'  which  it  is  acted  upon."  Now,  if  a  verb  necessarily  implies  an  agent 
■which  performs  the  action,  atid  an  object  which  receives  the  action,  what  more  is 
wanting  to  establish  the  transitive  character  of  such  a  verb?  But  the  passive  does 
all  this;  then  the  passive  verb  is  inevitably  transitive.  It  not  only  has  the  power  to 
afi'ect  an  object,  but  it  absolutely  does  it;  since  the  nominative  is  the  object  affected 
by  sush  a  verb, 

Dr.  Webster,  speaking  of  the  classification  of  verbs,  says,  "  FrOm  the  various  uses 
and  significations  of  verbs,  have  originated  several  divisions  or  classes.  The  only 
one  in°Eno'lish  which  seems  to  be  correct,  and  sufliciently  comprehensive,  is  into 
transitive  and  intransitive." 

#Rem.  6. — Voice  is  the  only  distinction  necessary  to  be  made  in  transitive  verbs; 
this  has  already  been  explained.  It  may,  hovrever,  be  proper  to  remark  that  the 
passive  voice  may  sometimes  be  used  to  better  advantage  than  the  active.  This  is 
the  cas»,  first,  when  wc  wish  to  conceal  the  agent;  as,  "My  knife  is  stolen ;" 
secondly,  when  the  nominative  of  the  passive  verb  is  rhe  principal  subject  of  dis- 
course ;  for  instance,  if  one  were  writing  ihelife  of  Csesar,  in  narrating  the  circum- 
stances of  his  assassination,  it  would  be  better  to  say  that  "  Cajsar  was  assassinated 
by  Brutus."  than  "Brutus  a.'-sassiuated  (  aesar;"  and,  thirdly,  in  order  t'l  prevent 
monotony  when  we  wish  to  repeat  a  sentiment  which  has  been  expres'sed  in  the  ac- 
tive voice. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  85 


SECTION   V. 

REMARKSONMODBS.  , 

Astothenttme  and  number  of  Modes,  it  may  bo  observed  that  authors  differ 
widely.     W'e  have,  however,  adopted  both  without  fully  approving  of  either. 

As  a  verb  in  the  indicative  mode  affirms  absolutely,  without  limitation,  whether 
nffirmatively  or  negatively,  if  it  extended  no  further,  no  objection  eould  bo  urged 
against  the  name.  But  the  indicative,  as  well  as  the  potential,  embraces  interroga- 
tory expressions.  Though  there  is  something  of  the  nature  of  an  affirmation  in 
every  question,  yet  Ihero  is  a  marked  difTerence  between  a  positive  affirmation  and 
51  question  ;  hence  Dr.  Webster  came  to  the  conclusion  that  it  would  bo  better  to 
adopt  a  negative  and  an  interrogative  mode,  were  it  not  for  the  inconvenience  of 
having  modes  of  modes.  Asthe  diffarence  between  a  negative  and  a  positive  affirma* 
tion,  consists  in  the  modifying  influence  exerted  upon  tho  verb  by  the  adverb  not, 
and  as  the  verb,  considered  apart  from  the  adverb,  expresses  a  positive  affirmation, 
there  is  perhaps  no  real  necessity  for  a  negative  mode ;  but  it  se'ems  to  us,  that  an 
interrogative  mode  is  desira.ble  ;  as  it  would  prevent  the  extension  of  the  indicativo 
and  potential  modes,  to  expressions  evidently  beyond  their  legitimate  limits. 

As  the  term  subjunctive  implies  something  subjoined  or  added  to  the  end,  irrespec- 
tive of  the  nature  of  the  affirmation,  the  name  is  objectionablo.  It  would  bo  much 
more  appropriate,  as  Dr.  Webstei*  suggests,  to  call  it  the  conditional  mode.  The 
subjunctive  mode,  as  its  name  imports,  is  limited  to  a, gubjnined  member,  though  this 
clause,  by  inversion,  is  some  times  placed  first ;  as,  "  If  Eliza  study,  she  will  im*. 
prove."  Mr.  Murray  says,  "  Tho  subjunctive  mode  represents  a  thing  under  a  con- 
dition, motive,  wish,  supposition,  tto.  ;  as,''  I  will  respect  him,  though  he  chide  me.' 
'  Were  he  good,  he  woulii  be  happy.'  "  We  may  infer  from  Mr.  Murray's  dehnition 
that  no  verb  is  in  tho  subjunctive  mode,  unless  preceded  by  some  conjunction,  ex- 
pressed or  understood  ;  this,  however,  is  not  the  fact;  for  any  word,  whether  verb  or 
urlverb,  that  limits  th?  affirmation  so  as  to  bring  it  within  the  limits  of  the  defini- 
tion, may  cause  the  following  verb  to  bo  in  the  subjunctive  mode ;  xs,"  Suppose 
we  go.^'     "Beforr  the  cock  croiD,  thou  sUalt  deny  me  thrice." 

The  verb  in  the  present  tense  of  this  mode  has  two  forms,  called  tho  conjunctive 
and  tho  indicative.  1  ho  conjunctive  exprcs,'?e3  ^it^«/"e  contingencfi.  &od  should  be 
iimited  in  its  use  to  what  is  called  tho  snbjunctive  present;  as,  "He  will  not  bo 
pardoned  unless  he  repent."  This  form  of  expression,  says  Mr.  Butler,  will  be  per- 
fectly intelligible,  if  we  suppose  an  ellipsis  of  an  auxiliary  ;  thus,  "Ho  will  not  he 
pardoned,  unless  he^hall  irpenf."  The  eorjunctivej  or  limiting  word,  in  such  con- 
structions, expresses  the  contingency,  and  the  verb,  the  futurity.  Those  words 
which  express  contingency,  not  only  change  the  indicativo  to  the  subjunctive,  but 
also  the  potential ;  as,  "  If  he  should  g-o.''  Some  authors,  however,  in  such  expres- 
sions, call  the  verb  potential. 

The  indicative  form  expresses  a  present  nnccrtainty ;  as,  "If  he  is  at  home,  ho 
will  attend  to  the  business." 

Some  authors  of  high  standing  think  the  Potential  should  be  embraced  in  the 
Indicative;  since,  in  such  expressions,  as  '•  I  can  walk,"  the  nbilitff  to  walk  is  posi- 
tively affirmed.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  these  authors  regard  the 
uuxiliiiru'R,  wnt/,  can,  mn.<i.  etc.,  ns  prinripal  verbs,  and  the  ecrbs  which  follow 
tbiMii,  in  tho  Inlinitivo  mi^de  without-the  sign  to.  Wo  do  not  see  any  p.nrticular  ad* 
vunlagi'  in  this  change. 

The  Infinitive  mode  is  the  simple  namo  of  the  verb  tukon  abstractly,  and,  as  it  is 
inc!ipublc  of  making  any  nfTirmation  concerning  the  suhjecv,  it  can  .scarcely  be  said 
philosophically  speaking,  to  have  any  mode  at  all.  It  partakes  of  t^e  nature  of» 
a  noun  and  a  verb,  ni;  the  participle  docs  of  the  adjective  and  verb  ;  hence  its  true 
character  Reems  to  be  participial.  Mr.  tJreen,  in  speaking  of  if,  says,  "  Thelnfini- 
tivo  is  here  placed  among  tlix*  modes,  because  it  has  thus  been  ranked  by  common 
consent,  yet  it  is  as  really  a  participle  as  the  forms  which  bear  that  name.  It  does 
not  assert  action  at  all,  and,  therefore,  r.nn  not  properly  be  said  to  have  mode.  It  is 
the  simple  name  of  the  verb,  taken  alitiractly,  and  partakes  of  the  properties  of  a 
noun  and  verb,  just  as  the  participle  p:irtakes  of  the  properties  of  an  adjective  and 
verb." 

Some  writ'TH  speak  of  nn  Infinilive  in  ing  ;  as,  "  Biding  on  horseback  is  a  healthy 
<.\erci«ie."     Ri<iiru(  is  the  name  of  soraelliing,  and  as  such,  partakes  of  the  nature  of 


86  *  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

a  noun  ;  but  it  expresses  an  action,  and,  as  such,  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  rerb; 
here  we  perceive  that  it  precisely  coincides  with  the  definition  given  of  the  Infini- 
tive. "  To  ride  on  horseback  is  a  healthy  exercise,"  is  precisely  equivalent  to 
"  Riding  on  horseback  is  a  healthy  exercise."  (See  Whateley's  Logic.) 
.  Dr.  Webster  has  reduced  the  number  of  modes  to  four,  viz. :  the  Infinitive,  Indi- 
cative, Imperative,  and  the  Conditional  (Subjunctive). 

Mr.  Butler  suggests  three,  viz.:  the  Indicative,  Imperative,  and  Infinitive. 

Mr.  Green  would  have  four,  viz. :  the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Potential,  and  Im- 
perative. 

Perhaps  it  would  not  be  the  best  to  disturb  the  arrangement  of  modes,  which  has 
generally  been  adopted  by  common  consent;  but,  were  we  disposed  to  suggest  at 
all,  we  would  suggest  five,  viz. :  the  Indicative,  Conditional,  Interrogative,  Potential, 
and  Imperative. 

•SECTION  VI. 

REMARKS    ON   THE   TENSES. 

With  rospeot  to  the  number  of  Tenses,  or  divisions  of  time,  affected  bj  certain 
modifications  of  the  verb,  a  general  harmony  prevails  among  authors  ;  but,  as  re- 
spects the  names  assigned  to  these  Tenses,  they  are  not  so  harmonious.  We  shall 
hero  set  down  a  few  of  the  most  prominent  without  attempting  to  argue  their  appro- 
priateness or  inappropriateness,  and  leave  such  teachers  as  may  think  proper  to 
use  thi*  work  to  choose  for  themselves. 

Dr.  Webster  denominates  them  Present,  Perfect,  Past,  Prior-past,  Future,  and 
Prior-future. 

Goold  Brown,  Kirkham  and  others,  call  them  Present,  Imperfect,  Perfect,  Pluper- 
fect, First  future  and  Second  future. 

The  Present,  Present-perfect,  the  Past,  Past-perfect,  Future,  and  Future -perfect, 
arc  the  designations  given  by  Dr.  Bullions  and  Mr.  Butler. 

After  carefully  reviewing  the  whole  ground,  we  see  no  sufiBcient  reason  for  change, 
but  adhere  to  those  we  have  already  given,  viz. :  Present,  Past,  Perfect,  Pluperfect, 
Future,  and  Future-perfect. 

The  uses  of  the  Present  tense  are  exhibited  as  follows: 

1st.  It  is  used  to  express  what  is  taking  place  at  the  time  it  is  mentioned,  or  what 
actually  exists  now  ;  as,  "  I  am."     "  He  is  writing  while  we  are  talking.'' 

2d.  To  express  immutable  truths,  or  what  occurs  habitually  ;  as,  "  God  is  all- 
wise."     "  She  takes  snuflf." 

3d.  It  is  properly  used  in  speaking  of  an  author  who  is  dead,  but  ■whose  works 
are  still  extant ;  as,  "  Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes  well." 

4th  By  a  figure  called  enallage.  it  is  used  for  the  past  in  animated  narrative  ;  as, 
"  Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  crosses  the  Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy  with  five  thousand 'men." 

5th.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a  relative  future  event.  This  is  the  case  when 
it  is  connected  with  such  expressions  as  when,  as  soon  as,  etc.  ;  as,  "  We  shall  bear 
the  news  lohen  the  mail  arrivfs  "     "As  soon  as  daylight  appears  we  shall  leave." 

,  The  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  and  potential  modes  do  not  point  out  lime  with  so 
much  precision  as  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the  indicative.  Tbe  peculiarity  of 
what  is  called  the  Elliptical  Future  or  the  conjunctive  form  of  the  subjunctive  pre- 
sent, consists  in  the  non  variation  of  the  verb  to  agree  with  nominatives  of  diflferent 
persons  and  numbers.  This,  however,  is  easily  explained  by  supposing  an  ellipsis 
of  the  auxiliary  :  lor  the  principal  verb  never  varies  when  auxiliaries  are  used, 
whether  expresscol  or  obviously  understood.  Most  verbs,  in  the  other  tenses  of  the 
subjunctive,  assilme  the  Fame  form  as  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the  indicative. 
There  is,  however,  one  peculiarity  in  the  subjunctive  past,  which  demands  special 
notice.  In  such  constructions,  the  verb  assumes  the  plural  form  of  the  past  tense, 
irrespective  of  the  number  and  person  of  its  nominative,  or  the  lime  ol  its  event ; 
consequently  the  form  of  the  veri)  gives  no  clue  to  its  tense;  "  If  I  were  he,  I 
would  not  act  thus,"  i.  e.,  I  am  not  he.  "  If  it  were  not  raining,  we  would  walk 
out;"  this  expression  is -equivalent  to,  "It  is  raining." 

Dr.  Webster  calls  this  the  hvpotherical  tenso.  Though  the  time  indicated  i  i  such 
expres.«ior.s  is  evidently  present,  yet  the  mind  in  its  percoptiun  asiociaies  with  it 
sometbina;  that  is  past;  e.  g.,  ''  If  thingM  had  been  so  arranged  that  no  rain  whb 
falling,  we  would  walk  out."  Again,  "  If,  in  the  order  tf  events,  if  it  had  so  hap- 
pened that  /  had  been  constituted  he  instead  of  /,  the  identical  person  /  am,  I 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  8Y 

would  not  aot  thus."  It  is  this  element  of  past  tioae  which  enters  iuto  the  mental 
peroption  of  the  case  supposed,  that  can  justify  its  being  called  at  all  a  past  tense. 

The  potential  pluperfect,  in  point  of  time,  corresponds  nearly  with  the  indicative" 
past,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  following  sentences  :  "  He  vunt  yesterday." 
"  He  ?rt/g-//<  Aave  gone  yesterday."  The  t/me  indicated  by  each  rerb  is  identically 
the  same,  though  the  nature  of  the  affirmation  differs  widely.  (See  Formation  of 
Tenses.) 

The  ti-ne  indicated  by  the  present  tense  of  the  infinitive  mode,  is  exceedingly 
vague  and  uncertain.  This  is  shown  from  the  fact  that  it  wrll  accommodate  itself 
in  construction  with  any  tense  of  the  Terb  ;  as.  "  I  intend  to  write."  "  I  intended 
to  write."    "  I  shall  intend  to  tcrite-"     "I  shall  have  intended  to  write." 

It  denotes  an  act  or  state  unfinished  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  principal  verb 
with  which  it  is  construed.  Hence  Mr.  Butler  calls  the  present  infinitive  the  imper- 
fect. 

The  perfect  infinitive  generally  denotes  an  act  or  event,  as  completed  in  reference 
to  the  verb  with  which  it  is  construed  ;  as.  "  To  this  she  is  said  to  have  replied." 
"  The  laws  of  Draco  are  said  to  have  been  wriUen  with  human  blood." 

Verbs  have  throe  forms  in  some  tenses  and  two  in  all,  viz.,  the  common  form,  as, 
"I  write;"  the  intensive  or  emphatic  form  ;  as,  ''I  do  write ;'* and  the  progressive; 
as,  "  I  iiM  zoritDt!;."  The  emphatic  form  is  confined  to  ihe  present  and  past  tenses  • 
but  the  progressive  form  continues  throughout  the  tenses,  and  is  called  by  Dr.' 
Webster  the  definite  tense,  whether  present,  past,  or  future.  It  is  called  progres- 
sive, because  it  points  out  an  event  in  progress  at  the  time  mentioned. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

CONJUGATION. 


§  1,  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the   regular  arrangement 
and  combination  of  its  parts,  according  to    the  Voices,  Modes 
Tenses,  Numbers,  and  Persons.  '  ' 

A  verb  is  irregular  when  the  root  is  varied  to  form  its  past  tense  and  per- 
fect participle,  or  when  it  is  monotonous,  having  all  its  parts  alike  •  as  Go 
V}tnt,  gone,  Let,  let,  let.  '      '       ' 

Rem.  1.— The  root  of  the  verb  is  its  simplest  fprm,  and  is  found  in  the  present  in- 
finitive without  the  sign ;  as,  Go,  love,  etc. 

Rem.  2.— The  principal  parts  of  the  verb,  are  the  roo^,  or  present  infinitive  the 
past  indicative,  &nd  the  perfect  participle.  •  ' 

CONJUGATION  OF   THE  VERB  TO  BE. 

Root  or  Present  Infinitive,  he,  Past  Indicative,  was,  Perfect 
Participle,  heen. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  lam.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Ihou  art  2.  You  are. 
3-  "e  IS.  3.  They  are. 


88 


ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 


PAST   TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  I  was. 

2.  Thou  wast. 

3.  He  was. 


1.  I  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been. 
8.  He  has  been. 


1.  I  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been. 

3.  He  had  been. 


1.  I  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be. 


Plural. 


3.  We  were. 

2.  You  were. 

3.  Thoy  were. 


PJERFECT    TENSE. 


1.  We  have  l>cen. 

2.  You  have  been, 

3.  They  have  been, 

PLUPBUiFECT   TENSE. 

1.  We  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been. 

3.  They  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 


1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  mive  been. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been. 


FUTURE -PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  We  shall  or  will  have  been. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  have  been. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 

Rem.  1. — The  form  of  tlio  present  indicative,  as  exhibited  in  the  foregoinj;,  is  tho 
form  DOW  used  bj  onr  best  writers  and  y^.CHkers  ;  but  a  different  form  formerly 
prevailed,  and  is  generally  found  in  o^ur  translation  ot  the  Biliie;  as,  "There  6f 
some  standing  here,"  etc.  This  form  consists  in  trie  use  of  be  without  any  var^- 
tion,  except  when  it  agrees  with  a  nominative  of  the  second  perbon,  siigular,  sol- 
elmn  style;  as, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  be.  I.    We  be. 

2.  Thou  beest.  2.  Ye  or  you  be. 

3.  He  be.  3.  They  be. 

Rem.  2.— The  subjunctive  mode  has  two  foriu^  in  the  present  and  two  in  the 
past.  The  first  form  in  the  present  is  similar  to  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the 
indicative,  and  expresses  a  ;?reae«<  wnceriain/y  ;  as,  "If  I  mn."  The  second  form 
expresses  a  future  contingency  ;  ps,  •'  If  I  be,"  i.  e  ,  "If  i  shall  be."  This  form 
is  sometimes  called  the  elliptical  future,  or  conjunctive  form  ;  because  the  auxiliary 
is  not  expressed.  The  first  form  of  the  ^as<  tense  corresponds  in  form  wi'.h  the 
same  tense  in  the  indicative,  and  implies  past  vncerlainty.  If  I  was,  implies 
doubt  whether  7  Mjfls  or  «ot  This  may  be  called  the  common  form.  Tte  second 
form  is  called  the  hypothetical,  and  contaius  a  suppo.-ition  ;  as,  •' //  /  jcere,"— this 
suppo  es  /  (lOT  ;iof.  (See  Remarks  on  Tenses.)  A  lull  display  of  these  forms  i» 
exhibited  in  the  following  : 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 


Singvlar. 

1.  7/1  am. 

2.  //■  thou  art  or  3'ou  are. 

3.  If  he  is. 


Plurc^l. 


1.  If  we  are. 

2.  ff  ye  or  you  are. 

3.  If  they  are. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  09 

ELLIPTICAL   FUTURE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

l.Ifl  be.  1.  //  we  be. 

2.  If  thou  be.  2.  If  ye  or  you  be. 

3.  If  he  be.  3.  If  they  be. 

PAST    TENSE   OR   CeMMON    FORM. 

\.  If  I  was.  1.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  wast.  2.  //'  you  were. 

3.  If  he  was.  3.  ^f  they  were. 

HTPOTHETICAL  FORM. 

1.  Were  I,  or  if  I  were.  l.,Were  we,  or  if  we  were. 

2.  Wert  thou,  or  if  thou  wert.  2.  .Were  you,  or  */*  you  were. 

3.  Were  he,  or  if  he  were.  3.  Were  they,  or  if  they  were. 

PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  //"  I  have  been.  1.  If  yve  have  been. 

2.  If  thou  hast  been.  2.  i/'  you  have  been. 
3..  Jf  he  has  been.  3.  If  they  Jiave  been. 

• 

PLUPERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  If  I  had  been.  1.  If  \\e  had  been. 

2.  //"  thou  hadst  been.  2.  7/"  you  had  been. 

3.  If  he  had  been.  3.  If  they  had  been. 

FUTURE   TENSE. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  be.  .1.  Xf  we  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  //'  thou  shalt  or  will  be.  2.  J/"  you  shall  or  will  be. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be.  3.  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  //■  I  shall  or  will  have  been.  1.  If  we  shall  or  will  have  been. 

2.  //■  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been.     2.  //'  you  shall  or  will  have  been. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been.         3.  If  they  shall  or  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL  i^ODE. 

*  PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular.    ,'  Plural. 

1.  T  may,' can,  or  must  be.  1.  We  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

2.  Thou  niayst,  canst  or  must  be.       2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

3.  He  may,  can,  or  must  be.  3.  They  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

PAST   TENSE. 

1.  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  1.  Might,  could,  would,  or  should 
be.  be. 

2.  Mi^htst,    couldst,    wouldst,     or  2.  Might,  could,  would,  or  should 
shouldst  bo.  be. 

3.  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  bo.  3.  Might,  could,  would  or  should  be. 


90 


ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 


PERFECT  TENSE. 


Singutir. 

1.  May  or  must  have  been. 

2.  Mayest  or  must  have  been. 

3.  May  or  must  have  been. 


Plural.  • 

1.  May  or  must  have  been. 

2.  May  or  must  have  been. 

3.  May  or  must  have  been. 


PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 
% 

1.  Might,   could,  would,  or  should  1.  Might,  could,  would,   or  should 
have  been.  have  been. 

2.  Mightst,     couklst,    wouldst,    or  2.  Might,  could,   would,  or  should 
shouldst  have  been.  have  been. 

3.  Might,   could,  would,  or  should  ?>.  Might,  could,  would,   or  should 


have  been. 

have  been. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Singular. 

riural. 

2.  Be,  or  be  thou. 

2.  Be,  or  be  yo  or  you. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT. 

Perfect. 

To  be. 

To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

IMPERFECT. 

PERFECT.                                       PLUPERFECT. 

Being. 

Been.                           Having  been, 

REGULAR  VERBS. 

§  2.  A  verb  is  regular  when  the  Past  Tense  and  Perfect  Far- 
ticiple  are  formed  by  annexing  d  or  ed  to  the  root  of  the  verb  ; 
if  the  root  ends  in  e,  d  only  is  annexed  ;  as,  Love,  loved. 
AVhen  the  root  ends  in  any  other  letter  except  e,  and  forms  its 
Past  Tense  and  Perfect  Participle  by  annexing  d  only,  the  verb 
is  irregular  ;  as,  Hear,  heard,  heard. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE  REGULAR  VERB  TO  LOVE,   IN  THE 
•  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


Present  Infinitive. 
Lore. 


I  love, 
Thou  lovest, 
He  loves. 


Principal  Parts. 

Past  Indicative. 
Loved. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 


Perfect  Participle. 
Loved. 


pluperfect. 

I  had  loved. 
Thou  badst  loved, 
He  had  loved. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR. 


91 


PAST. 

I  loved, 
Thou  lovedst, 
He  loved. 

PERFECT. 

I  have  loved, 
Thou  hast  loved, 
He  has  loved. 


FUTURE. 

I  shall  or  will  love, 
Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love, 
He  shall  or  will  love. 

FUTURE   PFUFECT. 

I  shall  have  loved, 
Thou  wilt  have  loved, 
He  will  have  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 


If  I  love, 

Tf  thou  love  or  lovcst, 

I  he  love  or  loves. 


Tf  I  loved, 

If  thou  lovedst. 

If  he  loved. 

PERFECT. 

If  I  have  loved. 
If  thou  hast  loved, 
If  he  has  loved. 


PLUPERFECT. 

If  I  had  loved, 

If  thou  hadst loved, 

If  he  had  loved. 

FUTURE. 

If  I  shall  or  will  lore, 

If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love, 

If  he  shall  or  will  love, 

FCTUKE-PERFBCT. 

If  I  shall  have  loved. 
If  thou  ahalt  have  loved, 
If  he  shall  have  loved. 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 


PRESENT. 


I  may,  can,  or  must  love, 

Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  love, 

He  may,  can,  or  mast  love. 

PAST. 

T  could  love. 
Thou  couldst  love. 
He  could  love. 


PERFECT. 

I  can  have  loved. 
Thou  canst  have  loved, 
He  can  have  loved. 

PLUPEKFECT. 

I  could  have  loved. 
Thou  couldst  have  lov«d, 
He  could  have  loved. 


PRESENT. 

To  love. 


IMPERFECT. 

Loving. 


IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

^^-'Ove.  Love  thou. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

PERFECT. 

To  have  loved. 


PARTICIPLES. 


PERFECT. 

Loved. 


PLUPERIKCT. 

Having  loved. 


THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 
§  3.   The  Passive  voice  is  formed  by  prefixing   the   variations 
of  the  verb  to  he  to  the  Perfect  Participle  of  a  Transitive  verb. 


92 


ANALYTICAL,  CONSTRUCTIVE    AND 


throughout  all  the  modes  and  tenses.  No  Intransitive  verbs 
can  have  voice  ;  since  they  can  have  no  object.  They  gene- 
rally have  the  Active  form,  though  a  few  of  them  admit  of  the 
Passive ;  as,  "  He  is  gone,"  etc.  As  a  verb  in  the  plural  num- 
ber undergoes  no  variation,  whatever  may  be  the  person  of  its 
nominative,  it  is  admitted  both  in  this  and  the  next  preceding. 

CONJUGATION  OF  THE   VERB  TO  LOVE,    IN    THE 
PASSIVE  VOICE. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 


PRESENT. 


I  am  loved, 
Thou  art  1 
You  are  loved. 


(  Thou  art  loved, 


8.  He  is  loved. 


1.  I  was  loved, 
f,    5  Thou  wast  loved, 
\  You  were  loved, 
8.  He  was  loved. 


1.  I  have  been  loved, 
f.     rrhou  hast  been  loved, 
■    ( You  have  been  loved, 
8.  He  has  been  loved* 


PLUPERFECT, 

1.  I  had  been  loved, 

q    j  Thou  hadst  been  loved, 

f  You  had  been  loved, 
3.  He  had  been  loved. 

FUTURE. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  loved, 

2    S  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved, 

\  You  shall  or  will  be  loved, 
8.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

FUTtTRE-PEBFECT. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been  loved, 

2  S  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been  loved, 

'  (You  shall  or  will  have  been  loved, 

8.  He  shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 


If  I  am  loved, 
\  If  thou  art  loved, 
]  If  you  are  loved, 
•If  he  is  loved. 

Or  thus. 

If  I  be  loved, 
j  If  thou  be  loved, 
)  If  you  be  loved, 

If  he  be  loved. 


PERFECT. 

1.  If  {  have  been  loved, 
2  3  If  thou  hast  been  loved, 
\  If  you  have  been  loved, 
3.  If  he  has  or  hath  been  loved. 

PLUPERFECT.     ^ 

1.  If  I  had  been  loved, 

„  j  If  thou  hadst  been  loved, 


If  you  had  been  loved. 
If  he  had  been  loved. 


1.  If  I  was  loved, 

^  \  If  thou  wast  loved, 

*"■  )  If  you  was  or  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  was  loved. 


If  I  shall  or  will  be  loved, 
j  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be  loved, 
(If  you  shall  or  will  be  loved. 
If  he  shall  or  will  be  loved. 


CONSTRUCTIVJt    OKAMMAR.  O'i 

Or  thus.  FITIRE-PERFECT. 

1.  If  I  were  loved,  1.  If  I  shall  have  been  loved, 

2     ( If  thou  wert  loved,  o  Hf  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been  loved, 

)  If  you  were  loved,  *"  \  If  you  shall  have  been  loved, 

8.  If  he  were  loved.  8.  If  ho  shall  have  been  loved. 

^    POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PRESENT. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  bo  loved, 

o     \  Thou  inayst,  canst,  or  must  be  loved, 

/You  may,  can,  or  must  be  loved, 
3.  He  may,  can,  or  must  be  loved. 


PAST. 

1.  T  might,  could,  would,  or  sb«uld  be  loved, 
_    J  Thou  uiightRt,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  should 
I  You  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be  lov 
3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be  loved 


1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been  loved, 

cy     jThou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  have  been  loved, 

/  You  may,  can,  or  must  have  been  loved, 
8.  Ho  may,  can,  or  must  have  been  loved. 

PLUPEKFECT. 

1.  T  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been  loved, 

2     f  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  been  loved, 

I  You  might,  could,  would,  or  sitould  have  been  loved, 
3.  He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been  loved, 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 
Be  loved,  or  Be  thou  lov©d,  or  Do  thou  be  loved. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT.  PERFECT, 

To  bo  loved.  To  have  been  loved, 

PARTICIPLES. 

IMPERFECT.  PERFECT.  PLUPERFECT. 

Being  loved.  Loved,  Having  been  loved. 


10 


94  ANALYTICAL,  CONSTRUCTIVE    AND 

INTERROGATIVE  CONJUGATION. 

Rem. — It  has  already  been  remarked  that  both  the  Indicative  and  Potential  modes 
are  employed  in  asking  questions. 

PRESENT. 

Singular,  Plnral. 

1.  Love  I  ?  1.  Love  we  ? 

o    ]  Lovest  thou  ?  2.  Love  ye  or  you  ? 

■  J  Love  you  ?  3.  Love  they  ? 
3.  Loveth  or  loves  he  ? 

The  foregoing  form  is  but  little  used.     The    following  is  the  usual  mode 
of  asking  questions : 

PRESENT. 

Smgnlar.  Plural. 

1.  Do  I  love  ?  1.  Do  we  love  ? 

„    f  Dost  thou  love  ?  o     jDoye  love? 
■•  I  Do  you  love  ?  '    /Do  you  love? 

8.  Does  he  love  ?  3.  Do  they  love  ? 


1.  Did  I  love  ?  1.  Did  we  love  ? 

Q     S  Didst  thou  love  ?  c,  S  Did  ye  love  ? 

/  Did  you  love  ?  ""  )  Did  you  love  ? 

8.  Did  he  love  ?  3.  Did  they  love  ? 


1.  Have  I  loved  ?  1.  Have  we  loved  ? 

jj     \  Hast  thou  loved  ?      *  ^     S  Have  ye  loved  ? 

""'    /  Have  you  loved  ?  '    {  Have  you  loved  ? 

3.  Has  or  hath  he  loved  ?  3.  Have  they  loTed  ? 

• 

PLUPERFECT. 

1.  Had  T  loved  ?  .  1.  Had  we  loved  ? 

\  Hadst  thou  loved  ?  „     <  Had  ye  loved  ? 


jH£ 


ad  you  loved  ?  '    }  Had  you  loved  ? 

3.  Had  he  loved  ?  8.  Had  they  loved  ? 


1.  Shall  I  love  ?  1.  Shall  we  love  ? 

„     S  Shalt  or  wilt  thou  love  ?  „     j  Shall  or  will  ye  love  ? 

■    \  Shall  or  will  you  love  ?  '    /  Shall  or  will  you  love  ? 

3.  Shall  or  will  he  love  ?  3.  Shall  or  will  they  love  ? 

FUTUEEPEKFECT. 

1.  Shall  I  have  loved  ?  1.  Shall  we  have  loved  ? 

2    j  Shalt  07-  wilt  thou  have  loved?  o     j Shall  or  will  ye  have  loved  ? 

]  Sliall  <)?■  will  you  have  loved  ?         '    ^  Shall  or  will  you  have  loved  ? 

8.  Shall  or  will  he  have  loved  ?  3.  Shall  or  will  they  have  bved  ? 


f  00N8TRUCT1VB    ORAyMAK.  95 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PKESENT   TEN8E. 

Singular.  Plural 

1.  Can  I  love  ?  1.  Can  we  love  ? 

2,  Canst  thou  love  ?  .      2.  Can  ye  love  J 

8.   Can  he  love  ?  3.    Can  they  love  ? 

All  the  other  tenses  of  the  Potential  Mode,  can  be  employed  in  asking 
questions. 

Rem. — A  negative  question  is  generally  equivalent  in  'v«rbal  force  to  a^positive 
agsertion  ;  as,  "Can  I  not  love  ?"=r  can  lovo.  "Shall  not  tho  Judge  of  all  the 
oarth  do  right  ?"=The  Judge  of  all  the  earth  shall  do  right. 


CHAPTER    X. 

AUXILIARY   VERB3. 

Auxiliary  verbs  are  monosyllabic  words  joined  to  other  verbs,  by  whose 
aid  the  principal  verb  is  chiefly  conjugated.  They  were  once  used  as  principal 
verbs,  and  a  few  of  thcui  still  retain  that  character;  hence  they  may  be 
•divided  into  two  classes,  viz.,  such  as  are  substantially  auxiliary,  and  such 
as  are  sometimes  auxiliaries,  and  sometimes  used  as  principal  verbs. 
Those  which  are  substantially  auxiliary,  are  may,  can,  munt,  shall,  might, 
could,  would,  and  should  ;  and  those  which  are  sometimes  used  as  principal 
verbs,  are  do,  be,  have,  and  will.  Might,  could,  would,  and  should  are  gen- 
erally regarded  as  the  past  tense  of  mat/,  can,  will,  and  shall.  But  as  the 
time,  indicated  bj'-  these  auxiliaries,  is  exceedingly  indefinite,  learners  are 
frequently  misled  by  supposmg  that  those  which  are  said  to  be  in  the  pre- 
sent tense,  always  point  out  present  time,  and  those  which  are  said  to  be 
in  the  past  tense,  point  ont  piist  lime.  This,  however,  is  far  from  being  the 
case  ;  for  those  in  the  present  tense,  as  frequently  point  future  time  as  pre- 
sent, and  those  of  the  past  tense  point  out  present  and  future,  as  well  as 
p>ast  time. 

Thoujih  these  auxiliaries  have  lost  Auch  of  their  original  import,  yet 
tbey  all  impart  a  sha3c  of  meaning  to  the  verbal  expression  which  demands 
explanation.  }Iay  implies  liberty  or  possibility  ;  as,  "  Yc  7nay  have  life." 
•  *' It  way  rain."  ^l/u5«  implies  necemty  ;  as,  '■'Vftmust  cat  and  drink." 
The  original  import  of  shall  is  that  oi  obligation  or  to  be  obliged;  as, 
"  Thou  shall  not  steal."  Though  shall  has  lost  its  original  meaning  in  the 
first  person,  it  generally  retains  it  in  the  second  and  third.  In  the  first  per- 
son  it  i>\mp\y  foretelli  or  predicts ;  as,  "I  shall  visit  New  York  next  sum- 
mer; but,  in  the  sfco/ir^  and  third  persons,  it  generally  threatens  ov  com- 
mands, and  implies  power  in  the  speaker  to  compel  obedience.  Hence  we 
may  perceive  the  ini|)ropricty  of  using  shall  in  addressing  the  Supreme 
Being,  or  in  speaking  of  tilings  or  events  over  which  the  speaker  has  no 
control  ;  as,  "Thou  shalt  not  suffer  thy  holy  One  to  see  corruption."  "The 
Lord  shall  fight  for  us."  "  Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all 
the  days  of  my  life." 


96  ANALYTICAL,  ILLU^'RATIVE    AND  , 

• 

Dr.  Webster  justly  remarks  that  no  human  being  has  a  right  to  use 
words  respecting  God  vfhich  implj-  authority  or  command.  In  the  example 
cited,  'icill  is  the  proper  auxiliary',  expressing  prediction. 

This  meaning  of  shall.,  however,  must  be  understood  with  some  limita- 
tion ;  for,  when  shall  is  not  utter«<]  emph;\tically,  or  when  preceded  by 
such  words  as  when.,  while.,  whoei^er,  if]  jn-ovided,  etc.,  it  has  nothing  of  the 
meaning  of  command  or  threatening  ;  as,  "  \V!ien  you  shall  ha. <!&  read  these 
papers,  I  will  send  you  the  others."  "While  he  shall  be  present."  "Who- 
ever shall  confess  me  before  men,  him  will  I  confess  before  my  Father 
which  is  in  Heaven." 

Should  almost  invariably  implies  obligation,  and  is  nearly  synonymous 
with  ought  ;  as,  "  He  should  study,"  i.  e.,  "  He  ought  to  study." 

Dr.  Webster's  remarks  on  will  are  so  excellent,  that  we  take  the  liberty 
t«  quote  them  eptire.  He  says,  "  h'ill  has  a  common  origin  with  the  Latin 
volo.  Hence  the  German  wollen,  the  old  English  icoll^  &i\(l  the  present 
contraction,  7Con''t,  that  is,  rcollnol. 

"This  was  originally  a  princip;*'  verb,  and  is  still  used  as  such  in  our 
language.  It  denotes  the  act  of  V.--.  mind  in  determining,  or  as  determina- 
tion ;  for  he  wills  to  go,  and  he  will  go,  are  radically  of  the  same  import. 
When  a  man  expres.ses  his  determination  of  mind,  /  will,  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  consider  the  event,  or  act  willed,  as  certain  ;  for  we  naturally 
connect  the  power  to  act  with  the  i'ltention  ;  hence  we  make  the  declaration 
of  will  a  ground  of  confidence,  and  hy  an  eas}^  association  of  ideas,  wc  con- 
nect the  declaration  with  an  ohligat'on  to  carry  the  determination  into  ef- 
fect.    Hence  will  expressed  by  a  person,  came  to  denote  &  promise. 

"But  when  a  person  declares  the  will  of  another,  he  is  not  bupposed  to 
possess  the  pOYrer  to  decide  for  him,  and  to  carry  his  will  into  effect.  He 
merely  offers  an  opinion,  [^rounded  ©n  information  or  probable  circumstan- 
ce.*, which  give  him  more  or  less  confidence  of  an  event  depending  on 
another's  wijl.  '  Hence  xcill,  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  simply /br<j- 
Iclls.,  or  expresses  an  opinion  of  what  will  take  place."  See  Webster's 
Grammar,  page  57. 

Though  wj7Z  is  one  of  the  signs  of  the  future  tense,  and,  when  joined 
to  another  verb,  it  is  generally  regarded  as  being  in  the  future  tense,  yet  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  iliat  it  is  not  unfrequcntly  used  f)otentially,  and, 
as  such,  embraces  a  present  deterr>;ination,  which  is,  perhajs,  to  be  com- 
pleted m  future  time.  Hence  it  involves  the  idea  both  of  present  and  fu- 
ture time  ;  and  as  the  present  resolution  to  carry  out,  and  complete  some 
event  in  the  future,  may  be  predicated  upon  the  existence  of  the  same 
thing  in  lime  prior  to  the  uttering  if  the  resolution,  it  niav,  by  an  associa- 
tion of  ideas,  hIso  involve  the  id^a  of  time  past;  as.  "  IVe  %cill  serve  the 
Lord,"  i.  (?.,  "We  have  served  the  Lord,  we  are  now  serving  the  Lord,  and 
we  will  continue  to  serve  the  Lord.  ' 

The  principal  uses. of  do  as  an  auxiliary,  are  to  impart  emphasis  to  decla- 
rations, and  to  ash  questions  ;  as,  "  I  do  say  it."  "  lie  did  go."  "Do  you 
mean  what  you  sny  ?"     "Did  he  visit  Rome  ?" 

It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  suVjstitute  for  some  other  verb,  used  in  a  pre- 
ceding sentence  ;   as,  "  Henry  loves  his  bock  ;  but  John  dbes  not." 

iJo,  as  a  principal  verb,  is  transitive,  and  signifies  to  act  or  to  malce. 

Hate  is  also  a  transitive  verb,  and  signifies  to  possess.  It  is  extensivejy 
used  as  an  auxiliary,  and  is  frequently  used  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  the 
principal  verb  ;  as,  "Mar}'  has  not  seen  New  York;  but  her  sister  has,"  i. 
c  ,  has  seen  New  York, 

Be  is  very  extensively  used,  and,  as  it  signifies  existence,  is  called  the 
uhstantive  verb. 


CONSTRUOTIVE    OaAMMAR.  97 

Cmi  implies  power  dV  ability  ;  Ss,    "He  can  go,"  i.  e.,  He  has  the  power 
or  ahility  to  go. 

Eem. — No  ausiliary  verb  has  more  than  two  tenses,  viz.,  tlw   Present  and  Past; 
and  they  are  briefly  represented  as  follows  : 

PKESE.NT.     PAST.     PRESBNT.    PAST.     PRESEXT.     PAST.     PRESBSr.     PAST 

May,         Might;  Can,  coul<ii;  Will,  would  ^         Shall,       should. 

Be,  Was;  Do,  did;  Have,         hat; 

Vhen  a  verb  is  both  a  principal  and  an  auxiliary,  and  is  conjugated  by  means  of 
the  ausiliary,  the  verb,  in  some  of  the  tenses,  will  bo  doubled,  or  the  aame  foroi 
ased  twica,  as  will  bo  seen  in  the  following  conjugation  of  Have. 

CONJUGATION  OF  HAVE. 
INDICATIVE  ^rODE. 

1%RESENT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

I.  I  have.  1.  We  have. 

^     i  Thou  hast,  ^  f  Ye  have. 

( You  have.  ■  I  You  have. 

3.   lie  has  or  liath.  3.  The}'^  have. 

FAHT   TENSE. 

• 

1.  I  had.  1.  We  had. 

g     f  Thou  hadsL  „     f  Y«  hat! 


]  You  had.  ^-    (Yon  had. 

He  had.  8.  Ihev  had. 


TEItFECT    TENSE. 

1.  I  liave  had.  1.  AVe  have  had, 

g     (  Thou  ha.-?t  had,  „     f  Ye  havii  had 


"(  You  have  had.  '   \  You  have  had. 

2>.  lie  has  or  hath  had  3.  The}'  have  had. 

PLCPEKFECT   TENSE. 

1.  I  liad  had.  1.  We  had  had. 

^     (  Thou  hadst  had.  <,     (Ye  had  had. 

I  You  had  had.  "''   ]  You  had  had. 

S.  He  had  had.  S.  They  had  had. 

FLTUUE    TENSE. 

1.  T  shall  or  will  have.  1.  We  shall  or  will  have. 

f>    i  Thou  shalt  or  will  have.  f,    |  Ye  shall  or  will  have. 

■"■    {  You  shall  or  will  have.  "'    j  You  shall  or  will  have. 

3.  lie  .shall  or  wiJl  have.  .3.  They  shall  or  will  have. 


98'  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

FUTURE-PERFECT.  • 

Singxilar.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  had.  1,  We  shall  have  had. 

2     f  Thou  shalt  ar  wilt  have  had,  9  .  (  Ye  shall  or  will  have  had. 

\  You  shall  cr  will  have  had.  *'■  \  You  shall  or  will  have  had. 

3.  He  shiall  ov  will  have  hai,  3.  Thev  shall  or  will  have  had. 


g  CIIAPTEE,    XI. 

FORMATION    OF    THE   TENSES. 

§  1.  The  Present  tense  of  the  Infinitive  is  the  root  or  sim- 
plest form  of  the  verb. 

The  Past  tense  of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive  modes  of  regular  verbs 
is  formed  by  anncaing  d  or  ed  to  the  root^  or  by  prefixing  did,  to  the  root ; 
as,  Love,  loved,  Walk,  walked,  or  did  walk;  and  of  irregular  verbs  by  va- 
rying the  root,  or  prelixiug  did  to  it-,  as,  1  nee,  I  naw,  (ir  did  see. 

Tht  Perfect  teniae  is  formed  by  prefixing  liacc  or  its  variations  to  i\\Q 
Perfect  Participle;  as,  "I  have  loved." 

The  Pluperfect  is  formed  by  pre'ixing  had  to  the  Perfect  Participle  ;  as, 
"  I  had  loved." 

The  Future  is  formed  by  prefixing  shall  or  will  to  the  root  of  the  verb  ; 
ts,  ""I  shall  or  will  love." 

The  Future-Perfect  is  formed  by  prefixing  shall  or  will  have  to  the  Per- 
fect Participle  ;  as,  "  I  shall  have  loved." 

The  Present  tense  of  the  Potential  mode,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is 
formed  bj  prefixing  may^  can,  or  must  to  the  root  of  the  verb  ;  as,  "I  may, 
can,  or  must  love." 

The  Past  is  formed  by  prefixing  might,  could,  would,  or  ghould  to  the 
roftt ;  as,  "I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love." 

The  Perfect  tense  is  foruied  by  prefixing  may,  can,  or  must  have  to  the 
Perfect  Participle  \  as,  "  I  maj'  have  loved." 

The  Pluperfect  is  formed  by  prefixing  might,  could,  imii,ld,  or  should 
have  to  the  Perfect  Participle;  as,  "I  might  have  loved." 

The  Present  tense  of  the  lufinilive  is  formed  by  prefixing  to  to  the  root 
of  the  verb;  as,  *'To  love." 

The  Perfect  is  formed  by  prefixing  to  hate  to  the  Perfect  Participle ;  as, 
"  To  have  loved." 

Kem.  1  —The  time  indicated  by  the  tenses  of  the  Potential  mode  is  much  moro 
indefinite  ihan  that  of  the  Indicative  mode,  or  even  the  Subjunctive  mode.  That 
called  the  Present  tense  is  applicable  to  future  as  well  as  present  time  ;  and  what  is 
called  the  Past  tense  is  applicable  to  present  time  as  well  as  past. 

Some  authors,  ihercfore,  call  these  tenses  Indefinite ;  to  this  opinion  the  author 
roadilv  subscribes. 

In  this  sentence,  "John  may  go  to  morrow."  to  reijuire  the  lean  er  to  parse  the 
verb  may  go  in  the  Present  tense,  would  contradict  the  eviiicnce  of  his  senses,  and 
confuse  his  ideas  of  time  as  indicated  hy  the  tenses  of  the  verb. 

It  would,  therefore,  be  much  better  to  call  both  thes«  tsc-es  iNrEFiNiTJB. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    OUAMMAR, 


99 


Rem.  2. — Ths  Indicative  and  Subjunctive  modes  have  six  tenses  each  ;  the  Po- 
tential has  four,  or  more  properly  speiikinfj,  three,  viz.:  the  Indefinite  (Present  aad 
Past)'  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect;  the  Imperative,  one,  viz:  the  Present;  and  the 
Infinitive,  tieo,  viz.  :  Present  ami  Perfect. 

Rem.  '^. — Defeciive  verbs  generally  have  no  modification  of  form  to  show  their 
tense  ;  some  of  them  undei^o  no  variation  to  agree  with  nominatives  of  different 
numbers  and  persons — such  as  Quoth.  This  verb  is  only  used  in  the  Present  and 
Past  tenses,  and  only  with  nominatives  of  theirs/  and  third  persons,  before  which 
it  is  .always  construed  ;  as,  '"  Quoth  I,  quoth  he,"  etc.* 

Rem.  4.— Though  ought  was  once  used  as  the  Past  tense  of  owe,  it  is  not  so  em- 
ployed now.  As  it  has  no  variation  to  e.xpress  tense,  its  tense  ean  only  be  inferred 
from  ihe  tense  of  the  Infinitive  with  which  it  is  invariably  construed.  If  ought  is 
followed  by  the  Present  Infinitive,  it  is  generally  gaid  to  be  in  me  Present  tense  ; 
as,  "These  things  ought  not  so  to  be."  But,  if  it  is  connected  with  the  Perfect  In- 
finitive, it  is  said  to  be  in  the  Past  tense;  as,  "This  ought  yo  to  have  done." 


CHAPTER    XII. 

IRREGULAR    VERBIS. 

§  1.  Irregular  verbs  may  be  divided  into  four  classes  : 

1st,  Such  as  have  a  different  form  in  each  of  their  parts  ;  as,  go,  went, 
gone ;  write,  wroto,  written. 

2(1.  Such  verbs  as  have  the  Past  tense  and  Perfect  Participle  alike,  but 
both  differ  from  the  root ;  as,  teach,  taught,  taught;    fight,  fought,  fought. 

3d.   Are  such  verbs   as    have   the   Present  tense  and  Perfect   Participle 
alike,  but  both  have  a  form  diil'erent  from  the  Past  tense  ;  as,  run,  ran,  run. 

4th.  Are  monotonous,  having  the  same  form  in    all  their  parts;  as,  let,, 
let,  lut ;  set,  set,  set. 

LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


TRESENT. 

PAST. 

Abide 

aJjodo 

Am 

was 

Awake 

awoke,  Rf 

Arise 

arose 

Bear  (to  bring  forth) 

bore 

Bear  (to  carry) 

bore 

Beat" 

beat 

Become 

became 

Begin 

began 

Bend 

bent,  R 

Bereave 

bereft,  R 

Beseech 

besought 

Bid 

, 

bid,  bado 

Bind 

bound 

Bite 

bit 

PERFECr-PAETICPLE. 

abode 

been 

awaked 

arisen 

born 

borne 

beaten,  beat 

become 

begun 

bent 

bereft,  R 

besought 

bidden,  bid 

bound 

bitten,  bit 


•It  is  only  need  in  ludicrous  ptylc. 

+Tho8o  verbs  who»e  Past  tense  and  Perfect  Participle  are  followed  by  R,  ha\x»  al^o  a  r^-g- 
jxlar  farm  ;  ae,  Awa;kb  or  awajw. 


100 

PRESEVi: 

Bleed 
Blow 
Break 
Breed 
Bring. 
Build 
Burn- 
Burst 
Buy 
Cast 
Catch' 
Chide 
Chooge 

Cleave  (tO' adhere) 
Cleave  (to  split) 
Cling 
Clothe- 
Come 
Cost 
Creep 
Crow- 
Cut 
Dare 
Deal 
Dig 
Do 
Draw 
Dreans 
Drink 
Drive 
Dwell 
Eat 

Engrave 
Fall 
Feed 
Feel 
Fight 
Find 
Flee 
Fling 
Fly 

Forsake 
Freeze 
Freight 
Get 
Gild 
Gird 
Give 
Go 

Grave 
Grind 
Grow 


.ilNALmCAL,    ItLUSTRAXrVI    AXD 


PERFECT-PA  KTICIPLE. 


bled 

bled 

blew 

blown 

broke 

brpken  ' 

bred 

bred 

brought 

brought 

built,  R 

built 

burnt,  R 

burnt,  R 

burst 

burst 

bought 

bought, 

cast 

cast 

caught,  E 

caught,  R 

chid 

chidden,  chid 

chose 

chosen 

cleaved 

cleaved 

clove,  cl'efl 

cloven 

clung 

clung 

clud,  R 

clad,  R 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

crept 

crept 

crew,  R 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

durst 

dared 

dealt,  R 

dealt,  R 

dug,  R 

dug,  R 

did 

done 

drew 

drawn 

dreamt,  R 

dreamt,  R 

drank 

drunk,  drank 

drove 

driven 

dwelt 

dwelt 

ate,  eat 

eaten,  eat* 

engraved 

engraven,  engraved 

foil 

fallen 

fed 

fed 

felt 

felt 

fought 

fought 

found 

found 

fled 

fled 

flung 

flung 

flew 

flown 

forsook 

forsaken 

froze 

frozen 

freighted 

fraught,  R 

got 

got,  gotten 

gilt,  R 

.gilt,  R 

girt,  R 

girt,  R 

gave 

given 

went 

gone 

graved 

graven,  R 

ground 

ground 

grew 

grown 

*Eat,  in  the  patt  SiBifta  sara  perfect  participle,  sliotild'  be  pronouncsd  et. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR. 


lUl 


PRESENT. 

Hang* 

Have 

Hear 

Heave 

How 

Hide 

Hit 

Hold 

Hurt 

Keep 

Kneel 

Knit 

Know 

Latle 

Lay 

Lead 

Leave 

Lend 

Let 

Lie  (to  recline) 

Light 

Load 

Lose 

Make 

Mean 

Meet 

Mow 

Pay 

Pen  (to  enclose) 

Put 

Quit 

Read 

Rend 

Rid 

Ride 

Ring 

Rise 

Rive 

Run 

Saw 

Say 

See 

Seek 

Seethe 

Sell 

Send 

Set 

Sit 

Shake 

Shape 

Shave 

.Shear 


PAST. 


PIRFECT    PARTICIPLE. 


hung 

hung 

had 

had. 

heard 

heard 

hove,  R 

hovcn,  R 

hewed 

hewn 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

hit 

hit 

held 

held 

hurt 

hurt 

kept 

kept 

knelt,  R 

knelt,  R 

knit,  R 

knit,  R 

knew 

Icnowa 

laded 

laden 

laid 

laid 

led 

led 

left 

Jeit 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

lay 

lain 

lit,  R 

lit,  R 

loaded 

laden,  R 

lost 

lost 

made 

made 

meant 

meant 

met 

met 

mowed 

mown 

paid 

paid 

pent,  R 

pent,  R 

put 

put 

quit,  R 

quit.  R 

read   , 

read 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

rode 

riddoQ 

rang,  rung 

rung 

rosej 

risen 

rived 

riven 

ran 

run 

sawed 

sawn,  R 

said 

said 

saw 

seen 

sought, 

soug,ht 

sod,  R 

sodden 

sold 

sold 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

sat 

sat 

shook 

shaken 

shaped 

shapen,  R 

shaved 

shaven,  R 

sheared 

shorn,  R 

*  Hang,  n  the  sense  of  to  execute,  is  regular. 

11 


102 


ANALYTICAL    ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 


PRESENT. 

Shed 
Shine 
Shoe 
Shoot 
Show- 
Shred 
Shrink 
Shut 
Sing 
Sink 
Slay 
Sleep 
Slide 
Sling 
Slink 
Slit 
Smite 

Sow  (to  scatter) 
Speak 
Speed 
Spell 
Spend 
Spill 
Spin 
Spit 
Spread 
Spring 
Stand 
Steal 
Stick 
String 
Stink 
Stride 
Strike 
Strive 

Strew  or  strew, 
Swear 
Sweat 
Sweep 
Swell         I 
Swim 
Swing 
Take 
Teach 
Tear 
Tell 
Think 
Thrive 
Thrust 
Tread 
Wax 
Wear 
Weave 
Weep 


PERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 


shed 

shed 

shone 

shone 

shod 

shod 

shot 

shot 

showed 

shone 

shred 

shred            * 

shrank,  shrunk 

shrunk 

shut 

shut 

iSang,  sung 
sank,  sunk 

sung 
sunk 

■lew- 

slain 

slept 
slid 

slept 
f-liilden,  slid 

slung 
slunk 

slung 
slunk 

slit 

slit,  R 

smot^ 

smitten 

sowed 

sown,  R 

spoke 
sped 
spelt,  R 

spoken 
sped 
spelt,  R 

spent 
spilt,  R  ' 

spent 
spilt,  R 

spun 

spun 

spit 
spr«ad 

spit 
spread 

sprang,  sprung 
stood 

sprung 
stood 

stole 

stolen 

stuck 

stuck 

strung 

strung 

stunk 

stunk 

strode,  strid 

stridden 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

strove 

striven 

strowed  or  strewed, 

strown  or  strewn 

swore 

sworn 

swe«t 

sweat 

swept 
swelled 

swept 
swollen,  R 

swam,  swum 

swum 

swung 

swung 

took 

taken 

taught 

taught 

tore 

torn 

told 

told 

thought 

thought 

throve 

thriven 

thrust 

thrust 

trod 

trodden,  trod 

waxed 

waxen,  R 

wore 

worn 

wove 

woven 

wept 

wept 

CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  1 '^•'^ 

TRKSENT.  TAST.  PEKFBCT    PARTICiriE. 

Wet  ^^  et,  R  \vct,  R  ^ 

Whet  whet,  R  '"het,  R 

Win  won  won 

Wind  wound  wound 

Work  wrought,  R  wrought,  R 

Wring  wruns  wrung  I 

Write  wrote  written 

Rex.  2— As  the  reader  of  the  BiMe  %vill  frequently  meet  with  forms  of  the  yvrb 
which  are  now  obsolete,  consequently  they  do  not  :ipi>ear  in  the  List,  a  few  of  th.se 
are  given  in  the  following  : 


PRESENT. 


PASX.  rEUFKCT    PAUTICII'LE. 


Bear  (to  carry)  hare  '  J^'Tno 

Bear  (to  bring  forth)  bar>i  born 

Xrivo  drave  driven 

Oot  P"*  gotten 

Skew  «/"-"'^'^  *^^f" 

Bpea-k  f^pake  spoken 

Bem.3.— Those  imrAed  ia  italics  are  oboolete. 


CHATTER    XIII. 

GENERAL  KE  51  ARKS  ON  THE  VERB. 

As  some  verbs  which  have  the  same  form  have  a  different  siguiacation,  care  must 
he  taken  not  to  confound  them  together.  When  ret'irn  moans  to  come  back,  it  is 
iDtrnnfitivo.  but,  when  it  means  to  rcjilare.  it  is  Transitive  ;  as,  "  When  cm  jou 
re<?/rrt  the  money  ?"  i.  c,  replace  it.  "When  will  tho^o  ladies  return?"  (come 
back).     "Hate  I  rent   niv  hopes  "  (Transitive).     "  W«  cesiin  sleep  "  (Iiitran^'tiv-e  ) 

Some  Intransitive  verbs  become  Transitive  by  taking  an  object  after  tiicm  of 
kindred  signification;  as,  "  Ilor  V\y>s  hliisk  deeper  swoeta."  '■  lie  sleeps  tho  d' ep 
of  death."''  '•  Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous. 

The  learner  should  bear  in  mind  that  ho  may  learn  to  know  the  tense  of  t.ia 
verb  by  the  sign  and  formation  of  the  tenses,  without  knowing  how  to  .apply  tlie 
tense  properly  in  speaking  and  writing  :  hence  the  necessity  of  studying  thorough- 
ly the  philosophy  of  the  tenses,  as  exhibited  ia  tha  Diagram  of  Time  and  it^/'X- 
planation.  The  following  exercises  contain  a  complete  variety  of  the  Voice--, 
Modes,  and  Tensas.  Each  verb  should  be  carefully  parsed,  and  comparod  with  lUu 
diagrams  of  modes  and  tenses,  as  exhibited  in  the  following  model  : 

3{od,i.  "  C;«sar  was  .<;lain  by  Brutus."  Wds  slain  is  ati  irreg;iil;iv, 
transitiye  verb,  passive  voice,  indicative  mode,  past  tcn.se,  and  is  of  thf^thir,/. 
person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  C;osiir,  according  to 
Rule  6. 

Question.'^.— Why  i.s  was  slain  <a  verb?  Bocnuse  it  asserts  or  atfiriiis.— 
Why  is  it  irregular  V  liocausc  it  forms  its  past  tense  and  perfect  participle 
by  varying  the  root— Slay,  slew,  slain.  AVhy  is  it  transitive  V  Because  it 
has  power  to  affect  an  oUjecit.  Why.  in  tiie  passive  voice?  Because  it> 
nomuiaiive  receives  the  action.  Who  performed  it?  Brutus.  NVhy  in  the 
indicstivetnode?  Because  it  affirms  without  limitation.  What  figuro  in 
the  diagram  illustrate^  it?  Figure  1.  How  docs  it  illustrate  it ?  .\,s  the 
iigure  is  in  juxta  position  with  that  part  of  the  diag»:im  which  represents 
the  subject,    it  showb   that   wh.itever    is    indicdtively    afiarmed,    belongai 


104  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATITE     AND 

absolutely  to  the  subject.  Why  in  the  past  tense?  Because  the  period 
of  time  in  which  the  event  occurred,  is  wholly  past.  What  figure  in  the 
diagram  illustrates  it?  Figure  2.  How  ?  As  the  figure  has  no  connection 
with  that  part  of  the  diagram  which  ropresents  present  tirae,  it  shows  that 
the  period  of  time  in  which  the  event  occurred  is  wholly  past.  Why  of 
the  third  person,  singular  ?    B«cause  its  nominative  is. 

Exercises. 

John  will  go,  if  Henry  will  go  with  him.  The  sun  shines  to-day,  though 
it  may  be  cloudy  tomorrow.  Dawn  on  our  darkness,  and  lend  us  thine 
aid.  The  gospel  ini^it  be  preached  among  all  nations.  The  work  can  be 
done.  The  sun  has  set  behind  tho  western  hills.  When  will  day  dawn  on 
iLi  ui'^ht  of  the  grave?  The  evil  that  men  do,  lives  after  them  ;  but  the 
gcod  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones.  I  may  have  been  mistaken.  Thou 
h'/'^i  betrayed  thy  friend,  and  ruined  thyself  This  ought  ye  to  have  done, 
and  not  to  leave  the  other  undone.  He  will  have  visited  me  three  times,  if 
h.'  come  next  week.  If  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died. 
He  had  written  his  letter  before  the  mail  arrived.  Let  us  go  hence.  Take 
heed  how  ye  hear.  He  might  have  returned  sooner.  He  could  do  the 
work  better.     Hear;  for  I  will  speak  of  excellent  things. 

Lord,  thou  wilt  hear  me  when  I  pray . 

I  am  forever  thine  ; 
I  fear  before  thee  all  the  day, 

Nor  would  I  dare  to  sin. 

From  your  fair  cheek,  the  rose  may  fade 

By  sickness  in  a  day  ; 
Your  beauty,  in  the  dust,  be  laid, 

Yet  Marjr's  part  will  stay. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

PARTICIPLES. 


Participles  from  the  Latin  particijpium^  a  partaker,  is  a 
word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes  of  the  nature  of  the 
verh^  and  also  of  the  adjective  ;  but  depends  upon  a  noun  or 
pronoun  in  construction. 

Verbs  have  three  Participles— the  Imperfect^  the  Perfect,  and  the  Plw 
perfect. 

The  Imperfect  participle  is  formed  by  annexing  ing  to  the  first  form  or 
root  of  the  verb ;  rs,  Talk,  talking. 

This  participle  is  called  Imp«rfect,  because  it  denotes  an  unfinished  state 
t)f  the  action  or  verbal  denotement. 

The  Perfect  participle  is  formed  by  annexing  d  or  ed  to  the  Present  tene;* 
of  regular  verbs  ;  as,  Smile,  smiled. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  106 

It  is;  called  Perfect  hecAxiae  it  denotes  the  finished  state  of  the  action  or 
verbal  denotement  . 

The  Pluper/est  participle  is  formed  by  prefixmg  havi7i(7  to  the  perfect 
participle  ;  as,  "  Raving  written  the  letter,  he  mailed  it."  _ 

It  is  called  PZuperfeci  because  it  implies  more  than  tlio  Pcrloct.  Tins 
parlicipl*  mot  only  denotes  the  finished  state  of  the  action,  !)ut  also  as 
having;  been  completed  before  the  time  indicated  by  the  principal  verb  of 
the  sentence  with  which  it  is  associated. 

AuUiors  are  not  agreed  with  regard  to  the  names  assigned  to  these  parti- 
ciples. They  have  been  named  as  follows:— The  Present  or  Imucrlcct,  the 
Perfect,  and  Compound.— JTirA'/iaw.  The  Present,  Perfct,  and  0  ^mpound- 
VQricct.—Ingersoll,  Bullions,  and  others.  The  Present,  Past,  and  Perfect— 
Greene.     The  Imperfect  Perfect  and  Pluperfect— G^oo/'*^  JJroicn. 

We  have  adopted  the  last  mentioned,  for  the  following  reason  :— Partici- 
ples do  n»t,  in  our  judgment,  derive  their  names  from  tlie  time  which  they 
indicate,  but  from  the  state  of  the  action  which  they  express. 

Then,  when  a  Participle  denotes  the  unfinished  state  of  the  action  or  ver- 
bal denotement  it  may,  with  propriety,  be  called  Lnper/ect;  it  may  be 
called  Perfect  yfhen  it  expresses  the  finished  state  of  the  verbal  denotctnent ; 
and,  with  equal  propriety,  it  may  be  denominated  Pluperfect,  when  it  im- 
plies action  completed  previous  to  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb  with 
which  it  is  associated.  .       .     .«      . 

Participles,  like  verbs,  have  an  actke  »nd  pastvoe  signification  ;  as,  Hav- 
in<i  written,  a  letter- active;  a  letter  having  been  wrt«en- —j-assive. 

Participles  have  two  forms— 6'im;)?#  and  Compound.  A  Participle  is 
simple  when  it  consists  of  a  single  word ;  as.  Loving.  It  is  eompourid  when 
it  consists  of  more  words  than  one  ;  as.  Being  loved,  hnoina  been  loved. 

The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  participles  can  govern  an  objective  case  ; 
but  the  Perfect  participle  has  no  governing  power. 

A  Participle  is  sctaetimes  used  without  the  word  on  whi'h  it  depends,  in 
construction,  being  expressed;  as,  ''Considering  their  means,  they  have 
accomplished  much,"  Some  authors,  in  constructions  like  the  above,  re- 
gard the  ParticipU  as  rt7iowa?o?is,  having  no  word  upon  which  it  can  de- 
pend ;  but  Dr.  Webster,  in  such  constructions,  supposes  that  the  Participle 
refers  to  we  understood ;  as,  *'  We  considering  their  means,"'  etc. 

Rem.  1.— As  participles  kave  no  distinct  etymological  character,  they  m»y  be  em- 
ployed as  various  parts  of  speech,  retaining  in  all,  however,  a  shade  of  their  parti- 
cipial meaning.  They  may  be  employed  as  iiewn,  sdjectiveg,  ndvrrbs,  prepositions, 
and  conjunctions;  as  exhibited  in  the  following  examples.  In  th»  tirst,  it  is  used  as 
a  noun;  in  the  second,  as  an  adjective;  in  the  third  and  fourth,  as  n  preposition ;  in 
the  fifth  and  sixth,  as  adverbs ;  and  in  the  seventh,  as  a  coKJKUctwv.  ^^ 

pi^gl—" Tho  Ittridng  of  the  temple  was  oontra<ry  to  the  orderji  o^  Titus. 

i^eeond.—-'  I  see  a.  flying  cloud." 

Third—"  I  speak  concerning  Chrict  and  the  Churchy 

Fourth. — "Nothing  was  said  teuchi ng  ih&t  question. 

JFty^A.— "He  C8.ii.e  running. 

Sixth— "  It  [s  j:asslng  stTAUgf."  ,,,     c.    •      ■ 

Seventh.—"  Seeing  we  must  part,  lot  us  do  it  peaeeably.'  Seeing  i-?  used  symny 
mously  with  since.    See  Clark's  New  Grammar. 

Model.  "We  heard  the  wind  roaring."  RoAmsr,  is  an  imperfect  part' 
<:iple,  derived  from  the  verb  to  roar,  and  refers  to  the  noun  wiiid,  accorc 
ing  to  Rule  18. 

Questions. — Why  is  roaring  a  participle  ?  Because  it  partakes  of  tb 
nature  of  the  verb  and  also  of  the  adjective  ;  but  it  depends  upon  a  not- 
in  construction.  Why  imperfcri?  Because  it  denotes  an  unliuished  sta 
<d  the  action  or  verbal  denotement 


106  ahalttical,  illustrative  aj?d 

Exercise?. 

The  stranger  saw  the  desert  thistle,  bending  there  its  lonely  head.  That 
house,  erected  on  yonder  rising  ground,  drew  me  from  the  road.  Man  be- 
holds the  twinkling  stars,  adorning  night's  blue  arch.  God,  having  finished 
all  his  works,  rested  on  the  seventh  day.  Mary,  you  have  accomplished 
the  task  assigned  you  by  your  tutoress.  The  object  of  the  campaign  being 
accomplished,  the  army  went  into  winter  quarters.  A  certain  man  came 
running  to  Jesus.  Considering  their  difficulties,  they  have  done  well.  He 
inquired  concerning  my  health.  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens 
and  the  earth.     Bonaparte  having  lost  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  fled  to  Paris. 

Sweet  fields  beyond  the  swelling  flood, 
Stand  dressed  in  living  green. 

I'll  sing  the  song  which  doth  belong 

To  all  the  human  race. 
Concerning  death,  which  steals  the  breath, 

And  blasts  the  comely  face. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

PIIONOUNS     OR     SUBSTITUTES. 

§  1.  Pronoun,  from  the  Latin  j^/o,  for,  and  nomen,  a  name,  is 
a  ^ord  used /or  or  instead  of  a  noun  or  name. 

Pronouns  are  not  only  used  to  represent  nouns,  but  sentences  or  parts 
of  sentences. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  two  sorts — Personal  and  Relative. 

Personal  pronouns  are  distinguished  from  the  Relative  by  having  a  form 
to  show  their  own  person. 

?^' There  are  five  personal  pronouns — /,  Thou  or  Fo»,  He,  She,  and  It, 
with  their  plurals— ire,  F*?,  or  You,  The;/.  As  pronouns  represent  nouns, 
they  must,  of  course,  possess  the  same  properties  which  belong  to  nouns, 
viz.,  Gender,  Number,  Person,  and  Case. 

Pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  not  varied  to  express  gen- 
der ;  for  as  the  first  person  represents  the  speaker,  and  the  second  the  per- 
son spoken  to,  they  are  supposed  to  be  present,  and  consequently  their 
gender  known;  but  as  the  third  person  may  be  absent  or  unknown  to  the 
person  or  persons  addressed,  it  is  varied  to  express  gender.  He  is  mascu- 
line, She  is  feminine,  It  is  neuter. 

Person  is  that  property  of  the  noun  or  pronoun,  which  shows  the  rela- 
tion of  the  speaker  to  the  subject. 

When  the  speaker  represents  the  subject,  it  is  the  first  person  ;  as  T,  We. 

When  the  speaker  addresses  the  subject,  it  is  of  the  second  person  ;  as. 
Thou,  Ye. 

And  when  the  speaker  speaks  of  or  about  the  subject,  it  is  of  the  third 
person ;  as,  He,  She,  It,  They. 

Most  of  the  pronouns  assume  difierent  forms  in  diflferent  cases. 


CONSTRUCTIVB   GRAM-MAR. 


"107 


This  variation  of  form  to  express  case,  is  called  Declension. 

Declension,  from  the  Latin  de,  from,  and  cUno,  to  bend,  shows  that  the 
possessive  and  objective  cases  have  dilferent  forms  from  the  nominative,  as 
exhibited  in  the  following  table  :  » 


FIRST    PERSON. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Kom.  I, 

/'rts.s.  my  or  mine, 

01  j.     me. 

We, 
our, 
us. 

SECOND    PERSON. 

Nom.  Thou, 
Posh,  thy  or 
Ohj.    thee. 

thine, 

THIRD    PERSON    MASCULINE. 

Ye  or  you, 

your, 

you. 

Nom.  He, 
Pass,  his, 
Ohj.    him. 

THIRD    PERSON    FEMINIKE. 

They, 
their, 
them. 

Nom.  She, 
Poi<s.  her, 
Ohj     her. 

TrilRD    PERSON   NEUTER. 

They, 
their, 
them. 

Nom.  It,  • 
Poss.   its, 
Ohj.    it. 

They, 
their, 
tliem. 

The  nature  of  declension  will 
be  more  clearl}-  undeistood  by  a 
close  inspection  of  Diagiam  No.  2. 
As  English  nouns  have  but  few 
inflections,  we  have  chosen  a  Latin 
noun  for  this  purpose,  which,  like 
other  Latin  nouns,  consists  of  two 
parts — the  Root  and  Ter/nination. 

The  root  of  the  Latin  noun 
Mma  is  written  at  the  base  of  the 
perpendicular  line  which  repre- 
sents the  nominative  case,  and  the 
termination  at  its  top.  Most  of 
the  other  five  cases  have  a  loi-m, 
and  all  a  meaning  different  from 
the  nominative,  and  arc,  therefore, 
called  oblique  cases.  The  termi- 
nations of  these  cases  are  written 

at  the  end  of  lines    forinins;   nnp^les    with  the   pendicular.     By  annexing 
these  terminations  to  the    root   lespectivcly   each   case  is  formed.     Thus, 


108  ANALTTIOAL,   ILLUS'HIATIVB   AN© 

genitive,  musae,  of  amuse;  dative,  musse,  to  a  muse;  accusative,  musam, 
a  muse ;  vocative,  mnsa,  0  muse!  and  ablative,  muaa,  with  a  muse,  etc 

The  declension  of  English  nouns  and  pronouns  may  be  illustrated  by 
writing  consecutively  the  nominative  cases  of  each  person  and  number  on 
the  perpendicular  line,  and  the  two  other  cases  at  the  terminations  of  lines 
forming  angles  with  the  perpendicular,  as  exhibited  in  the  diagram, 

Rkm.  1. — The  words  Owrs,  Yours,  Hers,  Theirs,  etc.,  are  generally  treafeJ  by 
Grammarians  as  pronouns  in  the  posse.'^sive  case;  but  Dr.  Webster  Ims  clearly 
demonstrated  that  they  are  substitutes  used  in  the  nominative  and  ohjeotive  eases. 
In  the  sentence,  "  My  sword  and  yovrs  are  kin,"  yours  is  evidently  a  substitute  for 
your  sword,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  connected  to  sword  by  ajid. 

It  is  generally  said,  in  such  constructions,  that  yours  is  in  the  pcsfefsive  case, 
governed  by  a  noun  understood  ;  but  if  the  noun  is  really  understood,  it  may  be 
Fuppliod ;  and  what  sort  of  sense  would  yours  sword  make  ?— evidently  bad  sense,  if 
not  nonsense.     See  D>:  Webster's  Improved  Grammar  of  the  English  Language. 

Rbk.  2. — Self  is  not  unfrequently  annexed  to  the  personal  pronouns  to  render 
them  emphatic,  and  to  point  out  the  speaker  as  the  real  agent  of  the  act,  in  contra- 
distinction to  its  having  been  done  by  proxy  ;  as,  "The  sun  himself  must  die."  "  I 
did  it  myself." 

In  such-eases  they  are  generally  called  compound  personal  pronouns,  and  are 
used  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  ;  but  never  in  the  possessive  j  but  they 
may  be  parsed  simply  as  personal  pronouns. 

Rem.  3. — It  is  frequently  used  without  any  definite  antecedent,  standing  merely 
for  a  state  of  things ;  as,  "  It  is  cold,"  "  It  rains,  "  It  freezes,"  etc.  "  It,  also  ad- 
mits of  the  predication  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  any  gender,  person,  or  number  ; 
as,  "  It  is  the  Lord,"  "  It  is  she,"  "  It  is  they,"  "  It  is  he,"  "  It  is  I,"   "  It  is  thou." 

Model  1st.  John  studies,  and  he  will  improve.  Re  is  a  personal  pronoun, 
masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  its  ante- 
cedent John,  according  to  Rule  12,  and  nominative  case  to  the  verb  tcill 
imjjrovc,  according  to  Rule  1. 

QucstioTis. — Why  is  Re  a  pronoun?  Because  it  represents  or  stands  for 
a  noun.  Why  personal?  Because  it  has  a  form  to  show  its  own  person. 
Why  of  the  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  ?  Because  its  antece- 
dent  t/bAn.  is.  Wky  nominative  case?  Because  it  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  in  its  own  clause. 

EXBKCISES. 

I  saw  a  man  leading  his  horse  slowly  over  the  new  bridge.  We  improve 
ourselves  by  close  application.  Young  ladies,  you  study  your  lessons  care- 
fully. If  I  go  away,  I  will  come  again,  and  receive  you  to  myself. 
If  any  man  serve  me,  him  will  my  Father  honor.  Horace,  thou  learnest 
many  lessons.  John  lost  his  knife,  and  Henry  found  it.  He  did  it  him- 
self. It  is  very  warm.  It  snows  very  fast.  It  is  I;  be  not  afraid.  It 
was  the  women  who  first  visited  the  sepulchre.  It  was  Peter  who  first 
preached  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles.  Day  was  descending  in  the  west 
when  I  brought  his  arms  to  Crothar ;  the  aged  hero  felt  them  with  his 
bands  ;  joy  brightened  his  thoughts. 

Model  2d.  "  Yours  of  the  fifth  instant  has  come  to  hand."  Yours  is  a 
substitute  for  your  letter,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  ?ias  come,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  1. 


AHALTTICAL,  ILLUSTItATIVli    AND  109 

Exercises. 

Julia  injured  her  book,  and  soiled  mine  ;  hers  is  better  than  mine.  We 
leave  your  forests  of  besists  for  ours  of  men.  Tho  Lord  knows  them  that 
are  his.  Your  letter  of  the  20Ui  of  this  month,  like  the  rest  of  yours,  tells 
me  with  so  much  more  wit,  sense,  and  kindness,  than  mine  can  express. 

There  everlastinfi;  spring  abides, 

And  never-with'ring  flowers ; 
Death,  like  a  narrow  sea,  divides 

This  Heavenly  land  from  ours. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

§  1.  Relative  Pronouns  are  such  as  relate  to  some  word  or 
phrase  going  before,  called  the  antecedent. 

They  arc  irho^  which  and  that,  and  their  compounds,  such  as  whichever, 
whoever,  whatever,  etc. 

Who  and  its  compounds  are  ajjplied  to  persons  only^  lohich  to  brutes 
and  things,  and  that  to  both  persons  and  things. 

W ho  and  its  compounds  are  declinable;  as, 

Noni.  Who,  Poss.  Whose,  Ohj.  Whom. 

Which  and  that  are  indeclinable. 

When  the  antecedent  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  in  th«  auperhitife  de- 
gree, or  the  specifying  adjective  same,  euphony  requires  that  that  should  be 
used  in  preference  to  who  or  lohich  ;  as,  "'  J<ih  was  the  most  patient  man 
that  we  read  of.     He  is  the  same  man  that  1  saw  before. 

That  should  bo  u.sed  in  preference  to  tcho  or  which,  when  the  antecedent 
consists  of  per.sons  and  brutes;  as,  "The  men  and  horses  that  were  drowned, 
have  been  found." 

Also,  to  prevent  monotony,  when  who  or  which  has  been  used  in  a  pre- 
ceding clause  ;  as,  "  The  wheel  killed  another  man,  who  is  the  sixth  that 
has  lost  his  life  by  lliis  means." 

What  is  generally  parsed  as  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  including 
both  the  antecedent  and  relative  ;  as,  "  I  like  toliat  jou  dislike  ;  but  if  we 
supply  the  ellipsis,  lohat  is  simply  ^'specifying  adjective ;  as,  "I  like  what 
thing  it  is  which  you  dislike." 

Those  pronouns  which  arc  used  in  asking  questions,  are  eonomllv  mlh^r] 
Interrogative  Pronouns  OT   i-clative  pronouns   of  the   ini 
They  are  who,  which,  and  what.     Of  these,  who  only,  proi. 
an  interrogative  pronoun.      Which  and  y/i/uii  belong  to  some  noun  ex]! 
or  understood,  and  are  consequently  spe^itying  adjectives;  as,  "  Wh<i: 
have  you  ♦"     "  ^hich  do  you   see  ?"— i.  e.,  which  person  or  thing  do  you 
see  ?" 


llO  ANALTTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

As  relative  pronouns  hare  no  form  to  indicate  their  gender,  person,  and 
number,  you  must  refer  to  their  antecedents,  in  order  to  know  these  pro- 
perties. 

The  gender,  pei'son  and  number  of  the  Interrogative  can  not  be  known, 
unless  its  subsequent  is  expressed  or  the  answer  given  ;  but  when  the  sub- 
sequent is  known,  the  gender,  person  and  number  of  the  interrogative  can 
be  determined.  The  subsequent  is  also  said  to  agree  in  case  with  its  inter- 
rogative.    (See  Construction  of  Sentences.) 

Rem.  1. — Though  whichever  and  whatever  are  generally  called  compound  relative 
pronouns,  they  iiro  nothing  more  than  specifying  adjectives,  or  to  say  ihe  most, 
substitutes.     (See  Part  I.,  Chapter  II.,  Model  ftth.) 

Rkm.  2. —  That  is  a  relative  pronoun  when  which,  or  who  can  bo  substituted  for  it; 
a3,  "  ho  that  acts  wisely,  deserves  praise,"  that  is,  he  who  acts  wisely,  etc.  "  This 
is  the  tree  that  produces  no  fruit,"  that  is,  "  This  is  the  tree  lohich  produces,"  etc. 

Rem.  3. — When  the  antecedent  is  obvious,  it  is  frequently  omitted;  as,  "  Whom 
man  forsakes,  thou  wilt  not  leave,"  that  is,  lam.  whom  man  for.sakcs,  etc.  "  Who 
steals  my  purse,  steals  trash,"  that  is,  he  who  steals  my  purse,  etc. 

Rem.  4. —  What  is.£ometimes  used  as  an  interjection  ;  as,  "  What !  is  thy  servant 
a  do£?" 

Rem.  5. — As  personal  pronouns  frequently  refer  to  antecedents,  and  as  relative 
pronouns  connect  as  well  as  refer  to  antecedents,  Mr.  Butler  very  justly,  as  wo 
think,  suggests  the  name  connective  pronouv  iis  preferable  to  relative. 

Rem.  6. — When  tbe  relative  refers  to  antecedents  which  are  collective  nouns, 
which  or  that  should  be  used  and  not  who ;  as,  "  The  Legislature  that  met." 

Model.  "  The  boy  whom  I  instruct,  learns  well."  Whom  is  a  relative 
pronoun,  masculine  gender,  third  person,  Angular,  agreeing  with  its  ante- 
cedent hoy^  according  to  Rule  12,  and  in  the  the  objective  case,  governed 
by  instruct^  according  to  Rule  20. 

Questions.  — Why  is  whom  a  pronoun  ?  Because  it  stands  for  or  repre- 
sents a  noun.  Why  a  relative  ?  Because  it  not  only  refers  to  an  antece- 
dent, but  has  no  form  to  show  its  person. 

Exercises. 

She  who  acts  prudently,  is  worthy  of  praise.  The  young  ladies  whom  I 
instruct,  improve  very  fast.  Julius  C^sar  who  had  conquered  Gaul,  was 
assassinated  by  Brutus.  This  is  the  tree  which  produces  no  fruit.  They 
that  sow  in  tears,  shall  reap  in  joy.  He  took  what  he  could  find.  Whom 
shall  we  send  ?  Me.  What  have  I  to  do  with  thee  ?  Let  her  take  what- 
ever pattern  suits  her  best.  This  is  the  dog  that  bit  the  cat  that  caught 
the  rat  that  ate  the  malt  that  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built.  Who  wor- 
ships God,  shall  find  him. 

Let  him  to  whom  we  now  belong, 

His  sovereign  right  assert. 
And  take  up  every  thankful  song, 

And  every  loving  heart 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  Ill 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

THE    ARTICLE. 

§  1.  Article,  from  the  Latin  artieulus,  a  j'oint  or  small  part, 
is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit  the  extent  of  their  signifi- 
cation ;  thu^!,  "  Man  is  sinful."  In  this  example  man  is  used 
in  a  general  sense,*  and  embraces  in  the  extent  of  its  meaning 
*^  all  man  Jet  fid ;"  but  in  the  sentence,  "Thou  art  the  man," 
the  meaning  of  man  is  circumscribed^or  limited  bj  the  to  a  par- 
ticular man. 

There  aive  two  articles — A  or  An  and  The. 

The  is  called  the  definite  article.     .1  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article. 

The  definite  article  limits  the  nouns  to  a  particular  object  or  collection  of 
objects ;  as,  "  The  man."     "  The  woman." 

The  indejlnife  article  limits  nouns  in  respect  to  number ;  it  belongs  to 
nouns  in  the  sinc;ular  number. 

Euphony  requires  that  an  should  be  used  before-words  commencing  with 
a  voteel  sound,  and  also  before  words  commencing  with  h,  when  the  accent 
is  on  the  second  syllable  ;  as,  "  yl»  oW  tale,"  '■'^  An  historic  account;"  and 
that  a  should  be  used  before  words  commencing  with  a  consonant  sound  ; 
as,  '■'A  book." 

The  definite  article  sometimes  belongs  to  adverbs  in  the  coinparatice  or 
tuperlative  degree;  as,  "The  more  I  examine  it,  the  better  I  like  it."  "I 
like  this  the  least  of  all." 

The  indefinite  article  is  sometimes  construed  with  nouns  in  the  ])lural 
number,  when  such  adjectives  as  dozen,  hundred,  thousand,  etc.,  intervene 
between  it  and  the  noun  ;  as,  "  A  dozen  men." 

When  an  article  and  adjective  belong  to  the  same  noun,  the  article  is 
generally  construed  before  the  a(/;(.c/i're;  as,  "yl  <70(9J  man  ;"  but  the  in- 
definite article  is  sometimes  construed  between  the  adjective  many,  and  the 
noun  to  which  it  belongs  ;  as, 

"  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen." 

The  article  a,  in  current  discourse,  should  be  pronounced  like  a  in  far, 
unless  when  emphatic. 

When  the  definite  article  precedes  a  word  commencing  with  a  voirel 
sound,  e  should  have  the  long  sound ;  but  when  it  precedes  a  word  coni- 
moncing  with  a  consonant  sound,  e  should  have  the  short  sound  ;  as,  "  J' he 
art.t  and  the  sciences" — unless  emphatic. 

When  a  and  the  are  emphatic,  the  vowels  are  both  long;  as,  "  I  did  not 
say  a  man  but  the  man. 

Rf.m.  1.— Whon  //(p  liiuits  iin  adverb  or  adjpctive  ;  a.",  "  I  love  her  the  more," 
"  Alexander  the  Great,"  "  the  deeper  the  woll,  the  colder  tho  water,"  gome  authois 
pnrse  the  article  the  as  an  adverb,  otherB  call  both  word-s  a  compound  adverb  or  ad- 
jective, na  tho  case  may  be;  either  <if  thes«  ways  may  do;  but  wo  j-rcfcr  ealling 
both  words  a  complex  adjective  or  adverb." 

Rem.  2. — In  such  constructions  as  the  above,  in  which  the  indefinite  article  a  is 
construed  with  a  plural  noun  ;  as,  ''A  dozen  men,"  "A  thousand  yoariJ,"  sotno  sup- 
pose that  there  i%an  ellipsis  of  a  prepotifion  before  such  nouns,  and  that  the  article 
belongs  to  the  xfords  dozen,' I  hnu  sand,  \isod  a^  nouns  ;  iis.  "  A  dozen  uf  nii'U,"  "A 
thousand  of  years."     When  such  woids  arc  plurali/.ed,  tho  propusitioii  ih  o-Tiiressod  ; 


11'2  ANALYTICAL,  (fONSTRUCTIVE    AND 

as,  "  Thousands  of  years,"  etc.  This  solution  appears  to  be  cori>ect :  ypt  vre  soe  no 
tjooi  reason  why  such  expressions  as  a  r^ozon,  a  hundred,  a  thousand,  etc.,  should 
;K/f  in  most  cases  be  parsed  -is  complex  ■idjeriircs  or  us  a  is  a  contraction  of  an,  tUo 
AD'j,lo-Saxon  ant-  one,  it  may  be  yarstjii  |js  a  stcondary  adjective. 

Hbm.  Z.—A  is  fcomotimes  used  ju  a  priipositioaal  sense,  and  with  the  meaning  of 
by  .  at,  to,  on,  etc. ;  '•  a*,  *'  He  gets  twenty  dollars  a  month,"  thatjis,  by  the  month. 
'*  Wo  go  a  fishing,"  that  is,  at  or  to  fishirfg.  "  He  went  ashore,"  that  is,  at  or  on 
shore*^" 

The'ajticle  is  perhaps  too  simple  as  an  article  to  need  a  Modal;  but  we  will  pro- 
aent  one  uied  in  a  more  complex  sense. 

Model.  "I  like  this  the  least  of  all."  The  least  is  a  complex  adverb,  and 
modifies  like,  according  to  Rule  25. 

JSXERCISES. 

A  great  man  is  fallen  in  Israel.  Alexander  the  Great,  who  conquered 
the  world,  was  conquered  by  his  own  passions.  A  good  man  is  a  great 
man.  A  hundred  loaves  are  not  sufficient.  A  thousand  stars  can  be  seen 
by  the  naked  e3'e.  The  winds  drove  the  vessel  ashore.  They  gave  him 
five  hundred  dollars  a  year.  Simon  Peter  said,  we  go  a  fishing.  The  pas- 
sions should  be  governed.  Eparainondas  was  the  greatest  of  the  Theban 
generals.       ' 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

ADJECTIVES  OR  ATTRIBUTES. 

§  1.  Adjective,  from  the  Latin  adjeetivus — from  ad,  to,  and 
jaeio,  to  ^ow,  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  ex- 
press its  quality  or  limit  its  meaning;  as,  "A  good  man." 
''That  man." 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz. —  Qualifying  and  Speci- 
fying. 

Qtialifying  adjectives  or  attributes  express  some  quality  of  the  noun  or 
pronoun  to  which  they  belong. 

As  quality  may  be  possessed  in  different  degrees,  qualifying  adjectives 
are  varied  to  express  the  degrees  of  quality,  either  possessed  by  the  same 
object  at  different  times,  or  by  different  objects,  at  the  same  time,  possessing 
different  degrees  of  the  same  quality  ;  as,  '"John  is  talld^  than  he  was  last 
year."     "  Henry  is  wiser  than  James." 

Most  adjectives  admit  of  three  degrees  of  comparison — the  Positive,  Com- 
paratire,  and  the  Superlative. 

The  Posit  ire  degree  expresses  an  imlirect  comparison,  as  when  we  say 
that  '•  Thomas  is  tall,"  we  can  only  determine  or  know  that  Thomas  is  tall 
by  comparing  him  with  the  general  height  of  men,  and  finding  that  he 
ext'sos  that  standard. 

The  Comjjarative  degree  expresses  a  direct  comparison  between  two  ob- 
jects; as,  "  EJiza  is  the  taller  of  the  two." 

T  ;e  Superlative  degree  expresses  a  direct  comparison  of  several  objects  ; 
as,  "That  is  the  ("^/^^esi  tree  in  the  f^jrest." 


COlfSTRUOTITfi    aRik.MMA.R. 


113 


Adjectives  expressive  of  color  or  t^ute,  generally  hare  four  degrees  of 
comparison,  viz. — tiie  Imperfect,  the  Pofiitioe,  the  Gomparative,  and  the 
Superlative  ;  us,  Brownish,  irown,  browner,  brownest.  Sweetish,  sweet,  sweet- 
er, Hwectt'st. 

The  Imperfect  degree  expresses  a  slij;ht  dep;ree  of  quality  inferior  to  tho 
Positive,  it  is  formed  by  anneKing  Ish  tO  the  Positive  ;  a,^,  Black,  bluckisk  ; 
hut  whftn  the  Positive  ends  in  tf  it  is  dropped;  as,  White,  whitish.  Set 
Dr.   Wehstrr''s  Improoed  Grammar  of  the  English  Language. 

Monosyllahic  adjectives  are  compared  by  annexing  r  or  er  to  the  Posi- 
tive to  form  the  Comparative,  and  .s.'  or  est  to  the  Positive  to  form  tlie  Su- 
perlative ;  as.  Mill,  milder,  tiiillesL. 

When  a  Disf>yl<d)ic  adjective  has  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable,  or 
ending  in  y  or  le,  it  admits  of  the  same  termination  ; as,  Polite,  politer,  po- 
litest. Iloly,  holier,  holiest.  Able,  abler,  ablest  ;  but  other  dissyllabic  ad- 
jectives, and  all  a(>j;ectives  of  more  than  two  syllables,  seldom  or  never  ad- 
mit of  these  terminations,  but  are  compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most^ 
less  and  least. 

Some  adjectives  admit  of  most  as  a  sufBi ;  as,  Nether,  nethernwst. 

Some  adjectives  are  said  to  be  secondary,  and  qualify  other  adjectives  ; 
as.  Pale  red  lining.     Bark  brown  cloth. 

Tho  Degrees  of  Comparison  arc  illustrated  by  the  following  Diagram  : 


Figure  1  illustrates  the  increase  of  the  Positive,  or  Comparison  ascend, 
ing ;  us,  Positive,  Wise ;  Comp&r!\l\vc,  wiser  ;  Superlative,  w«cs/. 

Figure  2  illustrates  dimunition  of  the  Positive,  or  Comparison  descciuling; 
as,  P.    Wise  ;  C.   less  wise;  S.  least  wm. 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  comparison  of  such  adjectives  as  have,  four  de- 
grees; as  Imperfect,  Greenish;  P.  green  ;  C.  greener;  S.  greenest. 

Tt  will  be  perceived  by  inspecting  the  Diagram,  that  the  Snperlativi'  <>^- 
pres.scs  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  of  quality ;  the  lines  S****  S,  in  Fi;;- 
uros  1  and  2,  make  these  extremes. 

AVhen  an  attribute  is  merely  named,  it  may  be  said  to  express  an  ab.-tiMct 
quality  ;  as,  Cold,  hot,  good,  bad.  In  the  former  words  called  cold  and 
Jiot,  we  merely  get  the  abstract  idea  of  pihysical  quality ;  in  the  latter,  that 
of  moral  quality  ;  but  when  we  say,  a  roll  day,  a  hot  day,  a  good  man,  a 
bad  man,  the  adjectives  may  be  said  to  be  assumtd  of  their  supers  respec- 
tively;  again,  when  we  say,  this  day  is  cold,  that  day  teas  hot,  this  man  is 
good,  that  man  was  bad,  these  attributes  may  be  said  to  be  predicated  of 
the  subjects  of  their  respective  sentences.     See  Construction  of  Elements. 

Hem.  1. — Some  adjectives  are  •rrrgular  in  comparison  ;  as,  Good,  letter,  beat. 
Little,  less,  i III f^t.    f'ore,  forinrr.Ji'.tt. 

Kkm.  "i  — Soino  adjcctiTcs  nro  defcrtivf,  being  wanting  in  gome  one  of  tho  dcgrcofl ; 
as,  7iethn;  n.th'rmunt.     In  tliis  adjoctivo,  the  positive  is  wanting 


JJ4  ANALYXIGAB,   IliLITSTRATITE   ANa 

Rem.  3; — Some  adjeciives  express  quality  absolutely^  aiaJ  do  not  logically  admifr 
©f  comparison  J  a,B,  Round,  square,  parallel.  To  these  may  be  added  such  as  havfr 
a  positive  form,  but  a  superlative  signification  ;  as,  Perfect,  chief,  supreme,  extreme, 
etc.  Our  best  writers  and  speakers,  however,  frequently  compare  such  adjectives  as 
4he  last  mentioned  ;  as,  "Our  sight  is  the  jnost  perfect  of  all  our  senses." — Addison- 
This  is  done  as  a  matter  of  convsnience,  not  that  any  one  supposes  that  any  thing 
can  bo  absolutely  pcr/ec<,  and  another  thing  more  perfect  or  most  perfect;— the  ex- 
preasioD,  too,  is  generally  more  concise  and  elegant  than  to  express  the  same  idea 
by  circuiiilocution.  It  would  be  more  elegant  to  say  our  sight  is  the  most  perfect',- 
Ihan  to  say  our  sight  ax>pro(iches  nearest  to  perfection.  Such  adjectives,  however, 
should  not  be  needlessly  compared  ;  as,  "  The  Svpremeat  Being."  "  The  cJiiefesii 
good,"  etc. 

llKu.  4. When  adjectives  are  comp.ared  by  the  adverbs  more  and  most,  less  and'^ 

least,  some  authors  advise  not  to  parse  the  adverb  with  the  adjective,  but  separate 
from  it.  We  do  not,  however,  see  the  importance  of  this  ;  as  more  wise  means  pre- 
cisely the  same  thing  as  wiser.  Adverbs  thus  used  do  nothing  more  than  to  assist 
the  adjective  in  performing  the  degrees  of  comparison,  as  the  auxiliary  verbs  do  the 
principal  verbs  in  forming  their  modes  and  tenses.  We  regard  either  w»y  as  cor- 
leut. 

Rhm.  5. Qualifying  adjectives  not  only   express  the  quality  of  the  nouns  of 

which  they  are  assumed  or  predicated,  but  they  also  limit  the  extent  of  their  mean- 
ing; as,  when  we  say  a  red  roeo,  the  adjective  red  limits  the  noun  rosf  to  a  less 
number;  as  there  are  fewer  red  roses,  than  roses.  And,  as  other  qualities  are  added, 
the  extension  of  the  meaning  will  be  still  more  circumscribed  ;  as,  "A  good,  wise, 
and  prudsni  prince."  Ilonce  it  is  said  in  such  cases,  that  the  extension  is  diminish- 
ed, and  the  comprehension  increased  ;.  since  the  aoun  comprehends  a  greater  number 
of  qualities,  but  extends  to  a  fewer  number  of  things. 

Model.  "  David  was  »  ptosis  prince."  Fious  is  a  qualifying  adjective,  in^ 
the  positive  degree — (compared) — pious,  more  pious,  most  pious,  and  be- 
longs to  prince,  according  to  Rule  15. 

Questions. — Why  is  pious  an  adjective?  Because  it  limits  a  noun.  Why 
a  qualifying  adjective  ?  Because  it  expresses  a  quality  of  the  noun  prince,, 
as  well  as  limits  it.  Why  in  the  positive  degree  ?  Because  it  expresses  an 
kidirect  comparison. 

EXEKCISKS, 

Man  is  a  great  einner ;  Christ  is  a  great  Saviour.  Some  roses  are  red, 
and  others  are  white.  These  are  parallel  lines.  Parallel  lines  can  never 
meet,  and  form  an  angle.  We  should  worship  the  Supreme  Being ;  he  is 
worthy  of  our  highest  praises.  The  law  is  holy,  just  and  good.  His  heart 
is  as  hard  as  the  nether  mill  stone.  A  good  man  enjoys  comfort  in  the- 
darkest  hour  of  adversity.  I  purchased  a  piece  of  dark  b?own  eloth.  The- 
aurora  borealie  imparts  a  reddish  hue  to  the  sky. 

The  cold,  bleak  winds  may  on  yoa  blow, 

And  darkness  gather  round ; 
Yet  this  blest  thing,  full  well  I  know, 

Will  ever  bright  be  found. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 

SPECIFYING  OR  LIMITING  ADJECTIVES. 

§  1.  Specifying  adjectives  point  out  their  guhjects  or  supers 
by  some  distinct  specificcations  ;  but  do  not  express  any  quality. 


eONSTRUOTIVK    ORAMHAK.  115 

As  specifying  adjectives  express  various  shades  and  colorings  of  thouf^ht, 
<;hey  may,  with  propriety,  be  classified  under  the  following  heads,  viz. — 
Distri/nitive,  IfcmonMrativc,  Indefinite^  Interrogative,  Kumeral,  Ordinal, 
and  (-ire  um^  ta  ti  tia  I. 

The  Distributive  adjectives  denote  iha  person  or  things  which  make  up  a 
<oholc  or  cla^,  eacli  taken  separately  and  singly.  They  are  each,  every^ 
cither  and  neither.  These  frcipiently  b^Jong  to  the  subjects  of  universal 
ipropositions;  as,  "  Every  man  is  accountable  to  God." 

The  Demonstratives  point  out  their  subjects  in  the  moat  definite  manner. 
They  are  this,  that,  thei^c,  t?iose,  former,  latter  and  yonder  ;  as,  "  This 
tree.     "  Yonder  house,"  etc. 

The  Indefinite  point  out  their  subjects  in  a  general  or  indefinite  manner. 
They  are  any,  all,  sitch,  same,  some,  other,  anoth$r,  and  perhaps  some 
others. 

The  Interrogative  arc  joined  to  nouns  in  asking  qiiestions  ;  as,  "Which 
way  shall  I  fiy  V"     "  What  man  is  that?" 

Numeral  specifying  adjectives  limit  their  subject  in  respect  to  number. 
They  are  used  in  counting  ;  as,  "  One  man."     "  Twenty  men." 

Ordinal  are  used  in  numbering,  or  in  expressing  the  order  in  which  su- 
pers or  subjects  arc  arranged  ;  as,  First,  oecmid,  third,  etc 

Circumstantial  arises  from  the  peculiar  eircumstances  under  which  they 
are  employed  ;  as,  "  A  Scottish  bonnet."  "  An  Arabian  herse."  "A  desert 
thistle,  etc.     These  are  so  numerous  that  no  list  can  be  given. 

Rem.  1. — Many  writers  call  such  words  as  my,  thy,  his,  her,  etc.,  possessive  adjec- 
tive 2>roTi07i.ns.  That  these  words  limit  nouns  by  denoting  possession,  is  readily  con- 
ceded, but  the  same  may  be  predicated  of  all  nouns  in  the  possessive  ca.-o  ;  and  ae 
these  represent  nouns  in  the  possessive  case,  we  see  no  good  reason  why  they  should 
not  be  parsed  simply  as  pronorms. 

Rkm.  2.— Though  wo  have  arranged  the  specifying  adjectives  under  the  preceding 
heads,  all  the  distinction  that  is  required  to  be  made  in  parsing  the  adjective,  is 
that  of  quaiijyitig  and  specifying. 

Rem.  i. — Specifying  adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  pronouns,  though  not  fre- 
quently ;  as,  "  A  good  understanding  have  <dl  they  that  fear  the  Lord." 

Rem.  4.— J.Iany  of  the  specifying  adjectives  are  used  as  substitutes;  but  when 
they  are  so  used  they  are  not  specifying  adjectives  ;  as,  "  None  performs  his  duty 
too  well." 

Rem.  5. — The  distinction  between  qualifying  and  specifying  adjectives,  is  not 
always  very  obvious;  for  they  frequently  run  into  each  other  in  various  ways. 
"  The  northern  hemisphere."  Northern  not  only  points  out  tbe  situation  of  the  hem- 
isphere, but  it  also  designates  its  local  relation  to  the  enuthern  hemisphere.  "  A 
human  action."  Human  not  only  limits  action  to  acts  which  human  beings  perform, 
but  also,  by  association  of  ideas,  it  involvec  soi^ething  of  quality,  of  lationality, 
and  accountability.  ' 

Model.   "I  saw  that  man  before." 

T hat  is  a  sjieei/'ying  or  limiting  adjective,  aod  Ixjiongs  io  man. 

Questions. — Why  is  tliat  an  adjective?  Because  it  is  joined  to  a  noun. 
Why  a  specifying  adjective  ?  Because  it  limits  the  noun  without  express- 
ing any  quality.  ' 

Exercises. 

He  looked  this  way,  and  that  way,  and,  when  he  saw  no  one,  he  slew  tho 
Egyptian.  Some  men  sin  deliberately  and  presumptuously.  Every  man 
has  sotiie  faults;  but  some  per.sons  can  not  sec  their  own  faults.  All  we, 
like  shcc[>,  liave  gone  astray.  Every  heart  knows  its  own  sorrows.  Yon- 
<ler  house  drew  mo  from  the  road.  What  books  are  these  ?  He  was  the 
£rst  man  fJial  mountotl  tbe  works,  t'-a^sar  entered  ii&\\\  with  Ave  thousand 


116  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

men.     Bonaparte  invadecj  Russia  with  an  army  of  four  hundred"  thousarf 
isoldiers.     He  purchased  an  iron  plow.     He  wears  a  gold  watch. 

Let  every  mortal  ear  attend, 

And  every  heart  rejoice ; 
The  t'"uaipet  of  the  gospel  sounds 

With  an  inviting  voice. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

ADVERBS    OR   MODIFIERS. 


§  1,  Adverb,  from  the  Latin  acZ,tO,  and  verhiim,  a  word,  is  a 
word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  verba,  participles,  adjec- 
tives, and  other  adverbs. 

Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes, — adverbs  of  place,  of 
time,  of  cause,  of  manner. 

Adverbs  of  ^^ace  answer  the  questions  lohere,  ^ohither,  rohence  ;  as,  Wher^, 
there,  above,  yonder,  lielow,  so?neicJiere,  bach,  vpwards,  downwards,  etc. 

Adverbs  of  ^me  answer  the  questions,  ichen,  how  long,  how  of  I  en;  as, 
Then,  yesterday,  always,  ever,  contmually,  of  ten,  frequently,  etc. 

Adverbs  of  cause  answer  the  questions,  why,  icherefore ;  as,  Why,  where- 
fore, therefore,  then. 

Adverbs  of  manner  answer  the  questions,  how ;  as,  Elegantly,  faith- 
fully, fairly,  etc.  They  are  generally  derived  from  adjectives  denoting 
quality. 

Rem.  1. — Adverbs  are  of  comparatively  recent  invention.  They  took  their  position 
in  the  great  family  of  words  long  since  the  other  parts  of  speech.  The  truth  of  this 
remark  may  be  safely  inferred,  if  nothing  were  known  of  their  history ;  for  they 
are  a  kind  of  substitute  for  some  two  or  throe  other  parts  of  sp«ech  ;  as,  "  She 
walks  gracefully  ;"  in  this  sentence,  gracefully  is  a  substitute  for  "  in  a  graceful 
manner^  The  pupils  may  be  profitably  exercised  in  pointing  out  the  adverbial 
equivalents,  by  which  their  meaning  and  application  will  be  more  fully  understood 
as  exhibited  in  the  followipg  specimens :  i7ere,  to  or  in  this  place  ;  there,  to  nr  in 
that  place;  where,  in  what  place  ;  whtreforfffor  what  reason;  therefore,  for  that  or 
this  reason ;  how,  in  what  manner,  etc.  Por  construction  of  adverbs,  see  Construc- 
tion of  Elementi. 

Rem.  2. — When  a  proposition  is  joined  to  an  adjective  (there  being  an  ellipsis  of 
the  noun),  the  phrase,  thus  formed,  m»y  be  called  an  adverbial  phrase ;  as,  In  vain, 
in  short,  at  length,  on  high,  etc. 

Model.  "  The  lowering  clouds  move  slozcly."  Slowly  is  an  adverb,  and 
modifies  the  verb  moved,  according  to  Rule  25. 

Questions. — Why  is  slowly  an  adverb?  Because,  in  this  example,  it  is 
added  or  joined  to  a  verb  to  point  out  the  manner  of  its  action. 

Exercises. 

The  Roman  women  once  voluntarily  contributed  their  most  precious  jew- 
els to  save  the  city.  My  friends  visit  me  very  often  at  my  father's  office. 
Do  justly,  love  mercy,  and  walk  hum !;»ly  before  thy  Creator.  This  pen 
writes  extremely  well.  Why  does  he  delay  so  long  ?  How  are  the  mighty 
fUllen  ?    He  hate  couie  at  length.     In  short,  I  am  a  downright  curious  fel- 


CONSTRUCTIVE    ORAMMXR.  llV 

low.  Jocund  day  stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain  top.  Whither 
wentest  thou  ?  If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now.  How  long 
will  war  desolate  the  earth  ?  Where  dwellest  thou  ?  Then  let  the  last  loud 
trumpet  sound. 

Merrily,  merrily  shall  I  live  now, 

Under  the  blossom  that  hangs  on  the  bough. 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

§  1.  Preposition,  from  the  Latin  prepositus,  placed  before, 
is  a  word  placed  before  some  noun  or  pronoun,  which  it  governs  ; 
it  also  shows  the  relation  which  this  word  bears  to  some  other 
word  which  precedes*  it  in  construction  ;  as,  "  John  went  with 
his  sister  to  church." 

With,  in  this  sentence,  shows  the  relation  between  we7it  and  sister — 
went  with  sister,  and  to  shows  the  relation  between  tcent  and  church — toent 
to  church. 

The  term  which  precedes  the  preposition  in  construction,  is  called  its  «»- 
tecedent  term ;  that  which  follows  it,  its  subsequent  term. 

A  noun,  pronoun,  verb,  participle,  adjective,  or  even  an  adverb,  may  be 
the  antecedent  term  of  the  preposition. 

A  noun,  pronoun,  participle,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  may  be  its  subse- 
quent. 

Rem.  1. — The  terms  of  the  preposition  are  often  transposed.  The  pupil  must  be 
guided  by  the  sense  alone  to  determine  what  words  are  oonneeted  by  the  prepogi. 
tion. 

Rem.  2 — When  the  two  terms  of  the  preposition  are  read  in  juxta  position  with 
it,  they  will  make  sense. 

Rem.  3. — A  preposition  sometimes  shows  precisely  where  &  person  or  thing  is,  by 
showing  the  relation  which  the  person  or  thing  inquired  for,  bears  to  a  leries  of 
terms;  as,  '•  The  geiitleman  is  at  home  in  the  house  up  stairs,  by  the  fire."  (Se* 
Construction  of  Elements.) 

Rem.  4. — Though  wo  do  not  believe  that  a  list  of  prepositions  is  generally  useful 
to  learners,  and  may  in  some  instances  be  injurious;  since  the  same  word  is  not  un- 
frequcntly  used  interchangeably  as  a  preposition,  an  adverb,  and  a  conjanction ; 
yet,  because  teachers  generally  desire  it,  and  it  may  be  useful  as  a  table  of  referonoe, 
the  principal  prepositions  are  given  in  tho  folllowing  list : 

Behind  By 

Below  Concerning 

Beneath  Down 

Beside   1  During 

Besides  j  Except 

Between  Excepting 

Betwixt  For,  From 

Beyond  In,  Into 

*  Which  precedes  It  in  construction,  i.  e.,  in  the  natural  order  of  conetruction. 

13 


Abroad 

Amid 
Amidfct  J 

About 

Above 

Among 
Amongst 

According  to 

Across 

Around^ 

After 

At 

Against 

Athwart 

Along 

Before 

118  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 


Near 

Respecting 

Of,  Off 

Round 

Out* 

Since 

Out  of 

Savef 

Over 

Though 

Pact 

Throughout 

Regarding 

Till 

To 

Up,  Upon 

Touching 

With 

Toward    ) 
Towards  J 

Within 

V,'ithout 

Under 

Via 

Underneath 

Until,  Unto 

B-Eis.—Accm-dwg,  notwithstanding,  during,  respecting,  regarding,  etc.,  were  no 
doubt  formerly  used  as  participles,  and  they  are  still  so  regarded  by  some  authors, 
and  may  be  considered  as  such  in  some  instances.  "Notwithstanding  his  poverty, 
he  is  content."  Dr.  Webster  says  that  in'thjs  example,  notwithstanding  is  a  parti" 
ciple,  being  composed  of  the  adverb  not  and  the  participle  withstanding,  and  that 
poverty  ir  in  the  nominative  case  absolute.  Thus,  he  is  content,  his  poverty  not- 
withstanding, i.  6;  not  hindering  or  opposing.j 

Model.  "  He  went  from  London."  From  is  a  preposition,  and  connects 
went  and  London,  and  shows  the  relation  between  them,  by  Rule  30. 

Questions. — Why  is  from  a  preposition  ?  Because  it  connects  words,  and 
shoAvs  the  relation  between  them.  Which  is  its  antecedent  term  ?  Went. 
Why  ?  Because  it  precedes  it  in  the  natural  order  of  construction.  Which 
the  subsequent  term  ?  London.  Why  ?  Because  it  follows  it  in  the  nat- 
ural order  of  construction.  In  what  case  is  its  subsequent  term  London  ? 
In  the  objective  case.     By  what  is  it  governed?    By   the  preposition  from. 

Exercises. 

Turn  from  your  evil  ways,  0  house  of  Israel !  He  inaketh  me  lie  down 
in  green  pastures.  On  either  side  of  the  river,  grows  the  tree  of  life, 
which  yields  her  fruit  every  month.  He  leadeth  me  in  the  paths  of  right- 
eousness for  his  name's  sake.  Under  the  rose,  are  many  thorns.  The 
AUwise  Creator  bestowed  the  power  of  speech  upon  man  for  the  best  of 
purposes  ;  but,  alas !  he  has  often  perverted  it  to  the  worst  of  uses.  Athwart 
the  sky,  red  lightnings  flashed.  Across  the  orbits  of  the  planet,  the  comet 
rolls  in  flame. 

Now,  in  the  garden  'neath  the  bow'rs, 

He  slumbers  in  the  tomb  ; 
Upon  it,  fall  the  summer  show'rs, 

Around  it,  flowers  bloom. 

The  king  of  France,  with  forty  thousand  men, 
Marched  up  the  hill,  and  then  marched  down  again. 

*  Out  should  generally  be  parsed  as  an  adverb. 

+  For  eave,  except,  but,  etc.,  see  Peculiar  Constructions. 

t  As  I  quote  from  memory,  I  may  not  have  used  Dr.  Webster's  precise  language,  but  1 
have  given  bis  sentiments. 


ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVH   AND  119 

CHAPTER    XXII. 

CONJUNCTIONS  OR  CONNECTIVES. 

§  1.  Conjunction,  from  the  Latin  conjunction  a  joining,  is  a 
word  that  connects  words  and  sentences  in  construction,  'join- 
ing two  or  more  simple  sentences  into  one  compound  one,'  and 
continuing  the  sentence  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer  or  speaker. 
It  also  begins  sentences  after  a  full  period,  manifesting  some 
relation  between  sentences  in  the  general  tenor  of  discourse. 

Th^  principal  conjunctions,  used  in  connecting  discourses,  are  and  or 
either,  nor,  neither,  hut,  than.  '      ' 

Rem.!.— Wo  regard  the  common  division  of  conjunctions  into  copulative  and 
disji/nctivc,  us  unp/idosophical  and  Ulogical.  '^^vu.iauvc  ana 

Of  all  the  conjunctions  called  copulative,  and  alone  deserves  that  name,  and  a.  tn 
dj^jmctive  conjunctions,  the  name  itself  is  objectionable.     None  in  the  list  wiU  co 

?rodac.d  r     1  ^•^"'^°  tl^^'  ^««  does  not  affect  the  opposition  ;  but  the  opposT  ,o„  il 
produced  by  other  word.s  as  in  the  following  sentence ;  «  Eyes  have  thev   A»/   .h 

X    SiLr '    A^''  have  they,  they  see  not ;  ears  have  they,  they  hear  not."-(y  ' 
JJr.  Webster  s  Improved  Grammar  of  the  English  Lavgvugc.)  ^ 

KEJr  ^.-A  more  logical  division  would  be  into  copulative,  alternative,   nrsativP 
adversative,  comparative,  causal  and  illcitive  '-'■'=' native,   negative, 

thits'  XKa7SThe'^S?  p^Jeri'cTt'e"  .7  "Sl'jJ  'JLZ  S^r^--^  " 

STv  bTaffi"^^-;  r  '7'  ''iT ''  ^«-eVor:ii  ctpi;d'b7:«rs' .?.zs,:.^; 

r)Avn?"°'    "    T^  T  ""^\"  separately  ;  as,  "John  is  a  good  student,"  etc 
nnHvn  off  ""  f /'""'^'r  "'^"^  ^^'^^^^^  '^^  °l«"^°°ts  which    express  an  Hter- 
1,1^  w.,   m''  "nn     T  'V  :°^^'  ''^''^'  ^^■P'-'^^^^  tl^e  .amc  idea;^s,  "John  or 
«a^»  l!  ^^^  '%",^'""?'^"/  °°«  °'-  tlie  other;  but  it  is  unceria  n  which     "11 J 

fnTJ.^f    y/'  ^"^[C    ^'^  "'"  ^-^'^'"Ple.  there  is  only  an   alternative  of  W*  • 
for  bay  and  g«7/mean  the  same  thing.     Or  is  frequently  preceded  by  Juher 
rJil'A       f  f  f'^'^'fy  P"^,«:J«d  by  neither,  Is  a  «.g'^?L  :  .since  the  predicafe  is 

S^'sTottL^t;^'rGV'::t 'sr 

^/e  and  .«../,;  as  will  be  c.ea'rly^'^L^nty'res'otinTlh^     en\:Siro^^t^Jot^^^^^^^ 

riefv'^Srh.°7"°'"°"r  *"  '"°^  '^^  J°^°  °°  "'^^^^^  "l^i"!^  express  some  contra"^ 
oxTr'M^e^f'opl^^^^^^^^^^^  *"«  <^°-   -'  «'-y«  joinonamcmbo; 

coSnafoTwirh  •;?°J^°°'''\1«  "°  «"ch  as  join  on  a  clause  which  is.  in  some  way. 
i7«VLaSl!'£uoAirr"''"'^*'''  '^*'  "Thomas  is  taller /^a„  Ilehry.'.     hi.. 

^<^^^iS^J^X^;y^:Z:^^^  '>7--  they 

arc  good."    In  this  example,  the  r«J^?r  iras^Uned     hut  !n  /hr  n*'^-'-'  '""^''■''^^,'^ 
the  rmsoA  is  assigned  •  "  It  h.«  1-111^8^  h!!.?/ .1  '  \  •  ^'  folo>.ing  example, 

.  JSrgo"  ;'i'.r:"'  '°^''  ■"■ '  ""*"°°  ^  -■  ■■  "■'■•^"»  ■•  'SrsJip,,  .^i^ , 


120  ANALTTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

tioDs;  ftfl,  Either  or,  Neither  nor,   Though  yet,  Both  and,  Not  only  hut,  etc.    (See 
Part  I.,  Model.) 

Rem.  4. — Though  w»  have  given  several  divisions  of  the  conjuction — to  which 
more,  perhftps,  might  be  added,  yet  we  recommend  no  division  whatever  in  parsing; 
it  is  enough  to  say  it  is  a  conjunction,  and  tell  what  it  connects. 

Model  "  Wheat  grows  in  fields,  and  men  reap;  it"  And  is  a  con- 
sanction,  and  connects  the  two  clauses  of  the  sentence. 

Exercises. 

He  came  with  her,  but  he  went  away  without  her.  He  can  succeed,  if 
be  will  try.  Joseph  and  his  brother  reside  in  New  York.  Both  Adams 
and  JefiFerson  died  on  the  foarth  of  July.  Job  was  wiser  than  his  friends. 
Mary  lored  Jesus  more  than  the  things  of  the  world.  Charity  suftereth 
l©ng,  and  is  kind.  Daniel  Webster  was  not  only  a  distinguished  statesman, 
bat  he  was  also  an  eminent  orator.  Those  trees  arc  flourishing,  because 
th«  ground  is  rich.  ^ 

The -way  of  the  transgressor  is  hard  ; 

S  is  a  transgressor  ; 
Therefore  the  way  of  S  is  hard. 

Ye  are  neither  cold  nor  hot.     Either  Henry  or  James  is  in  fault. 

*'  There  generous  fruits  that  never  fail, 

On  trees  immortal  grow  ; 
There  rocke,  and  hills,  and  brooks,  and  vales, 

With  milk  and  henev  flow." 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

INTERJECTIONS    OR    EXCLAMATIONS. 

§  1.  Interjection,  fcom  the  Latin  inter,  between,  and  jec- 
(ttm,  thrown,  is  a  word  generally  thrown  between  words  or 
sentences,  to  express  some  strong  emotion  or  feeling  of  the 
speaker.  As  interjections  have  no  grammatical  construction 
in  a  sentence,  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  belong  to  written 
language. 

Interiections  express  •vsirxon^ passions,  feelingSy  or  emotions  of  the  mind; 

as,  Oh  1  alas,  X)i*h,  pshaw,  hail,  welcome,  hleas  me,  etc. 

• 

Rem. — When  a  noun  or  pronoun  of  the  second  or  third  person,  without  any  in- 
tervening prepositions,  follows  the  interjection,  it  is  said  to  bo  in  the  riominative 
case  ;  but,  when  a  pronoun  of  the,A'«<  persan  follows,  it  is  put  in  the  objective  case  ; 
as,  "  0  thou  1"  "0  my  country  !"  ''A*,  mc- !"  Hence  seme  grammarians  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  interjections  govern  these  cases  respectively.  See  Kirk- 
ham's  Grammar,  page  164.  But,  as  interjections  have  no  dependent  construction  in 
8  sentence,  they  certainly  can  have  do  government;  consequently  the  words  which 
follow  them  must  be  disposed   of  in  some   other  way.     If  the   noun  or  pronoun  is 


CONSTBUOTITB    GRAMMAR.  121 

■-' .  <>m 

■iirecrtly  aidresserl,  it  Is  in  tho  nominative  case  independent,  as  it  is  called ;  as,  "  0 
Lord  !"  But,  if  no  address  is  made  ;  as,  "  Oh  !  my  country !"  it  is  in  the  case  inde- 
pendent by  exclamation,  or  it  may  be,  in  some  instances,  in  the  objective  case,  be- 
ing governed  by  some  verb  or  preposition  understood  ;  as,  "  Oh  !  piUj  my  coantry," 
or  " /ie//>  my  country."  In  such  expressions  as  "Ah  mo!  miserable !"  that  mc  is 
governed  by  a  verb  or  preposition  underotood,  is  obvious  ;  ae,  "  Ah  !  pity  me  who  am 
miserable."    ,(Soe  Peculiar  Constructions,  also  Goold  Brown's  Grammar,  paga  175. 


CHAPTER     XXIV. 

PBCULIAR   CONSTRUCTIONS,    IDIOMS,   AND   INTRICACIES. 

Rem.  1. — Some  verbs,  such  as  giving,  asking,  sending,  etc.,  are  followed  by  two 
©■bjective  cases — one  denoting  a  personal,  the  other  a  verbal  object.  The  one  whick 
its  directly  effected  by  the  verb's  action,  is  called  tho  direct  object,  the  other  the  in- 
"direct;  as,  "John  gave  me  the  fruit."  In  this  sentence  fruit  is  the  direct  object, 
»nd  me  the  indirect  object.  The  indirect  object  of  all  such  constractions  is  gov 
erned  by  some  preposition  nnderstqpd.  This  will  be  seen  by  the  transp'ositions  of 
the  objectives  ;  as,  "  John  gave  the  fruit  to  me."  In  analyzing*  such  sentences, 
the  learner  will  observe  that  the  indirect  object  constitutes  an  implenary  member ; 
las,  "  [John  gave  (  ,  me)*  the  fruit.]  "  [The  merchant  sent  (  ,  me)  the  book]  (by 
mail.)" 

In  all  such  constructions  the  sense  alone  must  determine  what  proposition  should 
4)0  supplied.  "  My  father  bought  me  a  horse."  "  John's  teacher  asked  him  a  ques- 
tion," In  the  first  of  these  examples /or  shonld  be  supplied  ;  and  in  the  second,  of 
sTiould  be  used — asked  being  nearly  synonymous  with  demanded.  Thus,  "  My  father 
bought  a  horse /oj-  mo."     "  John's  teacher  asked  a  question  of  him." 

Kf.m.  2. — When  a  verb  is  followed  by  two  objectives — one  denoting  the  material 
out  of  which  the  other  is  made  ;  tho  one  which  denotes  tho  matsrial  is  governed 
by  of  understood  ;  as,  "  [.John's  teachers  niade  (  ,  him)  a  good  scholar.]" 

The  truth  of  this  remark  will  be  seen  by  the  transposition  of  the  two  objectives ; 
thus,  "  John's  teachers  made  a  good  scholar  of  Mm."  John's  teachers  evidently  made 
■the  scholar  and  not  him. 

This  construction  harmonizes  with  the  Latin  language,  viz.,  the  noun  denoting 
the  material  out  of  which  another  is  made,  is  put  in  the  ablative  case,  and  transla- 
ted with  of  before  it.  Some  authors  govern  iho  first  objective  by  the  verb,  and  put 
the  second  after  to  hc^  understood ;  as,  "  Jahn's  teacher  made  hivt  to  be  a  good 
mcliolfir." 

Rem.  ?,. — When  a  sub-member,  which  breaks  its  super,  is  introduced  to  measure 
the  exact  overplus  or  deficiency  of  what  is  afiirmed  in  its  super,  by  is  understood; 
as,  "  [He  gave  (  ,  twenty  dollars)  too  much]  (for  the  horse.)"  "  [Tho  tea  is  (,  six 
pound.s)  too  heavy.]" 

But  when  the  super  is  not  broken  by  its  sub,  by  must  be  expressed;  as,  "  [T'qo  tea 
was  too  heavy]  (by  six  pounds.) 

KE>f.  4. — When  tho  verb  t^>  viake,  in  tho  passive  voice,  is  used  in  t^e  sense  of  to 
change,  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  follows  it  in  construction,  is  governed  by  into 
understood;  ns,  "Coirmand  that  those  stones  bo  made  bread"--!,  e..,  [These  stonei 
can  bo  made]  (into  broad,)  (command  th«t.) 

RE>f.  5.— Wljen  the  verb/?//,  in  tho  passive  voice,  moans  to  inform,  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  follows  it  in  construction,  is  governed  by  of  understood;  is.  "  [That 
iunfortunato  man  was  told]  (  ,  the  truth,)''  i.  e  ,  he  was  informed  of  the  truth.  The 
same  may  be  predicated  of  forgive,  used  in  the  sense  of  relieve  ;  as,  "Forgivo  us 
•our  debt"!?'' — i  c.,  relieve  us  of  our  debts. 

Rem.  6. — When  tho  verb  teach  in  tho  passive  voice,  i^  used  in  the  sense  of  instruct, 

*Thatia,  separating  a  eeiitwice  Into  claiises  and  phrases. 


123  ANALYTICAL,    CONSTRUCTIVE    AND 

the  noun  which  follows  it  in  construction,  is  governed  by  in  underetood ;  as,  "  Thosa 
young  ladies  were  taught  granomar  at  college" — i.  e.,  tbey  were  instructed  in 
grammar. 

In  constructions  like  the  foregoing,  some  authors  of  high  standing  contend  that 
verbs  in  the  passive  Toioe  govern  the  objective  case.  With  all  due  deference  to  their 
opinisn,  we  must  nevertheless  dissent  from  it  It  is  admitted  by  all  that  the  nomi- 
native case  of  y  verb  in  the  passive  voice  receives  or  endures,  the  action,  which 
action  is  performed  by  some  agent  expressed  or  understood.  Now,  as  the  novilna- 
tive  is  the  object  of  the  verb's  action,  we  can  not  see  how  something  else,  which  is 
entirely  distinct  from  the  nominative,  can  at  the  same  time,  be  the  object  of  the 
same  action. 

Rem.  7. — When  become  is  used  in  the  sense  of  g7'ow  or  increase,  into  is  under- 
Btood ;  as,  "  The  tcion  becomes  a  tree."    '•  A  calf  becoincs  an  ox." 

In  the  above  examples  ox  and  tree  can  not,  nor,  are  not,  predicated  of  scinn  and 
calf ;  for  n-  scion  is  not  a  fee,  nor  is  a  calf  an  ox ;  1  ut  a  scion  grows  into  a  tree,  and 
a  calf  increases  into  an  ox. 

There  are  some  cases,  however,  in  which  the  noan  or  pronoun  which  follows 
become  may  bo  regarded  as  predicated  of  the  subject,  as,  "  John  has  becomo  a  schol- 
ar."  This  expression  is  equivalent  to  /ic  is  now  a  scholar.  When  become  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  befit,  it  is  transitive,  and  governs  the  objective  case;  as, 

"  Eternal  Power,  whoso  high  abode 
Becomes  the  grandeur  of  a  God." 

Rkm.  8. — The  noun  or  pronoun  which  follows  like  or  unlike  in  construction,  ie 
governed  by  to  or  unto  understood  ;  as,  "  [Cbarit^',  (like  ,  the  sun,)  brightens  every 
object]  (around  it.)" 

Like,  in  such  constructions,  is  now  generally  regarded  as  a  preposition  ;  and,  as  its 
construction  as  a  preposition  is  more  simple,  concise,   and  equally  perspicuous,  it  is  . 
to  be  preferred. 

Rem.  9. — Nouns  which  denote  time,  dimension,,  value  and  some  others  of 
similar  import,  nro  generally  governed  by  a  proposition  understood  ;  as,  "  [He 
visited  me].(  ,  last  week)"  "  [Whoever  shall  compel  thee  to  goj  (  ,  a  mile,)  [go  ,] 
rwith  him)  (  ,  twain.)"  That  is,  He  visited  me  last  week.  (Jo  through  a  mile,  or 
through  the  space  of  a  mile. 

Some  eminent  authors,  however,  say  that  the  nouns  denoting  time,  dimension, 
etc.,  are  in  the  objective  case  without  &  governing  word.  That  the  actual  expression 
of  the  understood  elliptical  words  would  mar  Iho  euphony  of  the  sentence,  is  read- 
ily admitted;  but  may  not  the  same,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  be  predicated  of 
the  expression  of  all  elliptical  words  ?  Those,  however,  who  prefer  using  the  latter 
mode  of  construction,  are  sustained  by  authority  of  the  highest  grade. 

In  such  constructions  the  preposition,  if  not  expressed,  must  be  understood,  or 
there  is  none  ;  if  und«rslood,  the  remark  is  correct.  If  there  is  none,  we  cannot 
sea  how  anything  can  bo  in  the  objective  case,  and  yet  be  the  object  of  nothing. 
The  truth  is,  such  words,  whether  used  with  or  without  prepositions,  are  used* 
adverbially. 

Rem.  10. — Euphony  requires  the  omission  of  governing  prepositions  before  the 
noun  koine,  when  construed  after  intransitive  verbs  of  motion;  as,  *' [He  went} 
(  ,  home,)" — /.  e..  He  went  to  home. 

Rem.  11. —  Worth,  the  imperative  of  the  Saxon  weorthan,  was  formerly  used  as  a 
verb,  in  the  English  language.  Some  such  constructions  still  remain  in  the  old 
English  authors  ;  as,  "  Wo  worth  the  chase."  "  Wo  worth  the  day."  In  such  con-i 
structions,  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  follows  isorth  is  governed  by  to  or  mt-to  un- 
derstood ;  as,  "  Wo  worth  the  day," — i.  e.,  Wo  be  to  the  day. 

Worth,  according  to  Dr.  Webster,  when  it  means  equal  in  value,  is  an  adjective, and 
invariably  follows  the  noun  or  pronoun,  in  construction,  which  it  qualifies;  as,  "The 
book  is  worth  a  doilar."  Worth  is  also  followed  by  a  name  denoting  price  or  value, 
which  name,  according  to  some,  is  governing  by  of  understood;  but,  by  others,  it 
is  supposed  to  be  in  the  objective  case"wJthout  a  governing  word.  In  constructions 
like  the  above,  Mr.  James  Brown  contends  that  worth  is  a  noun  governed  by  of  under- 
stood ;  as,  *'  The  book  is  worth  a  dollar"— i.  c,  the  book, is  o/the  worth  of  a  dollar. 

*If  such  adverbial  elements  liruil  a  substantive  element,  through  the  medium  of  some 
adjective  element,  they  may  be  called  secondary  or  helping  adjectives  ;  but  if  they  modify 
a  verb  or  participle  indirectly,  i.  e.,  through  the  medium  of  some  other  element,  they  may 
be  called  secondary  or  helping  adverbs. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  123 

Mr.  Cardell  entertains  similar  views.  Messrs.  Goold  Brown,  Pardon  Davis,  and 
some  others,  consider,  consider  worth  in  such  constructions  &  prf'posi'ion.  To  this 
we  lijivo  no  objection. 

WYn-n  moral  worth  is  tho  leading  idea,  worthy  should  be  used  ,•  as,  "  He  is  not 
worthy  of  my  notice." 

KhM.  12. — A  writer's  signature   is  in    the  oVjectivo  case,  governed  by  6?/  under- 
stood :  as,  "  Dear  sir,  I  write  for  your  pleaiwre —  "  Peter  Paelky." 
(See  Frazee's  Grammar.)     Some  suppose  that  the  writer's  signature  is  in  apposition 
with  I  or  we,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Rem.  13. — When  the  preposition  for  follows  the  interjection  O  in  construction, 
its  antecedent  term  is  found  in  an  implenary  member,  which  is  tho  trunii  member 
of  tho  sentence  ;  as,  "  0  for  a  glance   of  heavenly  day."     Construed,  "[0  I  wisK\ 

1  2 

{for  a  glance)  (of  heavenly  day.)"     "  0  for  them,"— i.  c,  0  I  sigh  fur  them. 

Rem.  14. — When  two  prepositions  come  together  in  construction,  tho  former  gives 
an  implenary  member,  to  which  it  belongs;  as,  "  Drive  the  dog  from  under  the 
table  " — t.  e  ,  Drive  the  dog  from  thephcc.  ichich  is  under  the  table. 

In  such  constructions,  some  grammarians  call  the  two  propositions  a  compound 
preposition  ;  but  others  reg.ird  the  former  as  an  adverb. 

"  To  save  himself  nnd  household //om  amidst  a  world  devote  to  universal  wreck." 
Speaking  of  this  sentence,  Mr.  Bailey  says  that  from,  as  a  preposition,  governs  the 
phrase  amidst  a  world,  and  that  amidst  governs  icorld.  According  to  tho  views 
given  above,  the  sentence  may  be  rendered  thus:  "  'Tg  save  bimsdf  and  household 
from  ihi  destruction,  of  raiu  ichich  is  amidst  a  world  devote  to  miiversal  wreck." 
"He  looked  from  below  tho  precipice  "—«'.  e.,  from  the  place  which  is  below  the 
precipice.  "  Ida  stands  over  a.7<a«,9<  old  Troy."  Oi;cr,  in  this  example,  is  an  ad- 
verb, according  to  Mr.  Bailey,  and  wjairist  a  preposition,  governing  Troy, 

"  Let  thistles  grow  instead  of  wheat."  Some  grammarians  parse  instead  of  as  a 
preposition,  others  parse  insteud  as  an  adverb  modifying  grows ;  but  Dr.  Webster 
regards  si€ad  as  a  jinun  governed,  of  course,  by  in.  "  Let  thistles  grow  instead  of 
wheat,"  being  equivaleiU  to,  Let  thistles  grow  in  the  room  of  wheat,  or  in  the  jdace 
of  wheat. 

Rem.  \h.~That,  not  ured  as  a  specifying  adjective  or  relative  pronoun,  is  general- 
ly treated  by  authors  as  a  conjunction.  To  this,  however,  Dr.  Webster  and  several 
other  eminent  philolo^^^sts  object— contending  tbnt  that  is  iiever  used  as  a  conjunc 
tion,  but  as  a  sub.«titute  for  tho  member  of  tho  sentence,  which  follows  it  in  construc- 
tion ;  as,  "  The  living  know  that  they  shall  die."  They  shall  die — tho  livin!>'  know 
ihat. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  that,  as  a  connective,  it  must,  nevertheless,  be  obvious 
to  every  reflecting  mind,  that  it  is  a  substitute  for  the  member  which  follows  it,  in 
tho  objective  case,  and  governed  by  know. 

When  <^a<  is  followed  by  a  member  denoting  tho  objector  purpose,  for  which 
€omething  is  done,  that,  as  a  substitute,  is  governed  by  for  understood  ;  as,  "  James 
went  to  school  i/it/^  he  might  learn  philosophy."  James  went  to  school..  Tor  what 
did  James  go  to  school  7— <Aa<  he  might  learn  philosophy.  Did  he  go  Ut  that? 
Yes,  he  went  fer  that. 

When  that  joins  on  a  mombnr  which  expresses  a  consequence  or  effect,  it  is  con- 
strued after  the  phrase,  tho  consequence  wa»,  undertood ;  as,  ""The  Pre.videi  ;  was 
so  ill,  that  he  failed  to  stnd  his  message."  The  President  was  so  ill,  the  consequence 
teas  that  he  failed  to  send  his  message. 

When  that  fallows  such  adjectives  as  glad,  certain,  confidence,  etc.,  it  i.«  ;;uv- 
erned  by  o/ understood  ;  as,  "  Paul  was  glad  tliat  Titus  had  come."  T;v,./had 
come,  P.aul  was  glad  of  that. 

When  that  follows  verbs  which 'express  a  determination  of  the  will,  such  as  re- 
solve, determine,  etc.,  it  is  governed  by  on  understood  ;  as,  "  Tho  Captain  resolveU 
that  the  ship  should  sail,"     The  .■'hip  should  sail,  tho  Captain  resolved  on  that. 

That  sometimes  follows  the  iniorjoction  0,  in  construition.  In  such  cases  it  i.s 
governed  by  a  varb  or  preposition  understood;  as,  "0!  Ihat  I  had  wings  like  a 
dove."     If  I  had  wings  like  a  dove— 0  !  I  desire  that. 

When  thit  is  used  merely  in  the  sense  of  namely,  but  not  synonymous  with  it,  it 
is  construed  after  which  is  or  which  was  understood ;  as,  "  And  ho  spake  a  parable 
unto  this  end,  that  men  ought  always  to  pray  and  not  to  faint."  Ho  spake  a  parable 
onto  this  ^nd,  which  was  that  men  ought  always  to  pray  and  not  to  faint. 

Here  that  makes  its  nearest  approach  to  a  connective.  Those  who  prefer  parsing 
thai  as  a  conjunction,  in  cases  like  the  above,  are  sustained  by  authors  generally. 


124  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATITB   AND 

That,  as  a  sustitote,  in  some  cases,  is  governed  by  to  understood  ;  as,"  Take  heedl 
that  yo  do  not  your  alms  before  men  to  bo  seen  of  them,"  i.  «.,  take  heed  to  that,  etc. 

Observation.  It  is  not  contended  that  that  is  not  a  connective,  but  it  is  more  than 
a  connective;  the  relative  pronoun  is  a  connective,  but  it  is  a  pronoun  at  the  sam« 
time.  Regarding  that  as  a  conjunction,  it  should  be  construed  in  the  member  which 
it  gives,  and,  in  many  instances,  it  is  quite  convenient  to  construe  it  as  a  conjunction; 
as,  "  [Ue  came]  (in  order)  (that  justice  might  be  done.)"  In  is  a  preposition,  in  this 
•xample,  governing  order  as  a  noun   and  thai  is  generally  regarded  as  a  conjunction. 

RjtM.  16. —  That  is  not  unfrequently  found  in  the  same  constrnotion  with  but  ;  as, 
"  I  would  myself  define,  and  defend  your  rights,  hut  that  it  might  conflici:  with  your 
privilege." 

Mr.  Bailey  supposes  that  but  and  that,  in  this  sentence,  are  both  conjunctions,  be- 
longing to  their  rtspectivo  members.  Thus,  I  myself  would  define  and  defend  your 
rights,  but  f^r  the  reason  that  it  might  conflict  with  your  privilege. 

That  and  it  are  both  evidently  substitutes  for  the  clause  which  precedes  them  in 
construction  ;  then  one  of  them  may  be  dispensed  with  as  useless;  as,  I  would  my- 
self define  and  defend  your  rights,  but  that  might  conflict  with  your  privilege.  That, 
M  now  used,  is  a  substitute  for  the  member  that  precedes  it,  and  in  the  nominative 
case  to  miijht  conflict;  or  we  may  drop*/Afl<,  and  say,  I  would  myself  define  and 
defend  your  rights,  bat  it  might  conflict  with  yoar  privilege.  The  sense  is  equally 
clear  in  both  constructions.  We  can  not  dispense  with  but,  but  either  that  or  it 
ought,  in  our  judgment,  to  be  expunged. 

What  is  sometimes  improperly  used  in  such  constructions  instead  of  that ;  as,  "  I 
can  not  see  but  what  he  was  in  fault."  It  should  be,  I  can  not  see  hut  that  he  was 
in  fault.  But,  in  tbi.i  sentence,  has  the  lane  meaning  as  ojdy  ;  as,  He  was  in  fault, 
I  can  only  see  that.     (See  Appendix.) 

Rrm.  17. —  rZ/rtf  is  frequently  construed  after  i<  when  j7  introduces  a  sentence, 
and  is  a  substitute  for  some  clause  which  succeeds  it  in  construction;  as,  "It  may 
be  observed  ihnt  the  educational  advantages  of  our  ancestors  were  much  inferior  to 
ours."  In  this  sentence  it  and  that  are  both  substitutes  for  the  member  which  fol- 
lows them,  as  will  be  seen  by  trans^posing  the  construction — in  which  case  i^  will 
vanish  ;  as,  The  e4ucati<.'nal  advantagts  of  our  ancestors  were  much  inferior  to  ours, 
that  may  b«  observed,  if  that\s  parsed  as  a  substitute,  it  may  be  put  in  apposition 
with  il,  but,  as  a  conjunction,  it  connects  the  members  of  the  sentence. 

Rkm.  is. —  That  Was  formerly  used  in  the  sense  of  what;  as,  "  We  speak  that  we 
do  know,  and  testify  that  we  hare  seen."  "  ITiat  thou  doest,  do  quickly."  (See 
Construction  of  What.)     This  use  of  tttat  is  now  obsolete. 

Rem.  19. — Some  adverbs  are  construed  with  nouns,  such  as  only,  alone,  ago,  and 
perhaps,  some  others  of  similar  import ;  as,  "  By  greatness  I  do  not  mean  the  bulk 
of  a  single  object  only,  but  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view." — Addison.  "  I  waa 
there  just  thirty  years  wjo" 

In  the  first  example  only  evident  modifies  the  noun  ohyect,  and,  in  the  last,  ago 
has  its  grammatical  conocctinn  with  the  noun  years. 

Only  and  ago,  in  fuch  constructions,  are  generally  regarded  as  anomalons ;  since, 
according  to  the  laws  of  grammar,  an  adverbial  element  can  not  limit  a  substantive 
element.  But,  as  oj  a  single  object  is  an  adjective  element,  and  years  is  used  adver- 
bially, if  we  regard  these  adverbs  only  and  ago  as  modifying  these  as  elements 
and  Bot  as  nouns,  used  as  such,  the  anomal  ceases ;  but  when  such  words  as  only, 
etc.,  modify  nouns  or  pronouns,  we  see  no  luflSeient  reason  why  they  should  not  be 
called  aojectives,  as  they  really  are  ;  as.  "  An  only  son."  (See  Webster's  Unabridged 
Dictionary,  Art.  Only).  Care  should  be  taken  in  the  construction  of  such  words,  ua 
the  meaning  of  the  sentence  may  vary  as  often  as  these  modifying  words  are  ap- 
plied to  different  elements.  "  I  only  saw  him."  Only  here  modifies  /,  and  the 
meaning  is  that  /,  and  no  body  else,  saw  him.  I  saw  him  only.  Here  ordy  modi- 
fes  him,  and  the  meaning  is.  I  saw  him,  and  no  one  else.  I  saw  only  him. 
Only  now  modifies  the  verb  f:aw,  the    meaning  is,  /  saw,  but  no  one    else  did  see. 

Rem.  20.— Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mood,  or,  at  least,  having  the  imperative 
form,  agree  with  a  nomifiative  of  the  third  person  ;  as,  "  Be  it  enacted."  Authors 
are  not  agreed  with  regard  to  the'manner  of  disposing  of  such  constructions. 

Some  suppose  lfc«  verb  to  be  in  the  infinitive  mode,  following  let  understood  ;  a«, 
"  Let  it  be  enaH*d ;"  others  regard  it  as  an  anomalous  expression  in  the  imperative 
mode  ;  but  when  the  sentence  is  petitionative,  the  verb  ought  to  be  regarded  as  being 
in  the  potenttel  sHwii?,  having  the  auxiliary  understood;  as,  "Hallowed  be  thy 
Bame,"— I.  «.,  "  May  thy  name  be  hallowed." 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  125 

Kev.  21.— '  They  love  one  another."  "Let  us  help  ench  other."  These  and 
aiinilar  constructions  are  of  frequent  os'urrenca  in  the  English  language,  nn.l  may 
be  disposed  of  in  either  of  the  followin  ;  ways  :  "  They  love— 0H«  person  lovis  a»- 
o^//rr  person."  "  Lot  us  help— let  frtcA  person  help  the  o//^er  j'jrson  ;"  or  owe  «»" 
other  and  mch  other  mxy  bo  regarded  a,-!  phrases  in  the  objective  case,  and  g^jverned 
by  the  verbs  lone  and  help.     The  latter  mode  is  preferable. 

"  Ye  are  one  another's }oj."  Mr.  Qoold  Brown,  who  has  a  deservedly  hi^b  r^p'i- 
tttion  as  a  grammarian,  .separates  one  mother  in  construction  ;  he  says  thnt  one  is 
in  the  nominative  Ciiso,  put  by  appo.sitii>u  with  ye,  and  another's  is  in  the  possessive 
case,  governed  hy  joy.  If  they  should  be  separated,  still,  in  construction,  we  would 
rather  suggest  that  o««  is  the  nominative  case  to  a  verb  uuderstood  :  a.«,  'Ye  «r3 
joy— one  is  another's  joy."  But  let  us  consirue  the  sentence,  as  we  have  a  r.ght  to 
do,  as  follows:  "  Ye  are  the  joy  of  one  mwtkcr."  Nrtw  both  words  fall  und.jr  the 
same  construction  ;  and,  in  whatever  ca-e  one  is,  another  is  in  the  same.  Then  one, 
in  the  first  construction,  may  be  regard -d  »«  being  in  the  jto.mmsj'cc  case  v.ithuut 
the  sign.  These  words  ate,  however,  sometimes  separated  in  construciinn,  a  prepo- 
sition being  construed  between  them;  as  "  Then  they  that  feared  the  Lord,  spake 
often  one  to  another-"  One  may  be  parsed  in  apposition  with  they,  or  in  the  nomi- 
native case  to  spitke  understood. 

Rem .  22.— "  3fe  <AmA-ff."  The  peculiarity  of  this  construction,  consists  of  the 
use  of  an  objective  for  a  nominative,  and  the  agreement  of  a  verb  of  the  third  per- 
son with  a  nominative  of  the  first  person.  Hm  was  formerly  used  in  the  same  way, 
but  has  long  since  been  laid  aside.  As  sucli  expressions  as  "  Me  thinks,"  and  "  Mo 
thought,"  are  anomalous,  they  should  be  sparingly  used. 

Examples    for   Exercise. 

My  mother  taught  me  the  letters.  They  asked  me  a  question.  They 
made  General  Jackson  President.  The  goods  were  ten  pounds  too  light 
John  was  told  the  trutk  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth,  and  that  he 
shall  stand  upon  the  earth  in  the  latter  da}'.  That  man  is  mortal,  no  one 
denies.  Ye  will  not  come  unto  me,  that  ye  may  have  life.  The  weather 
was  so''cold  that  travelling  was  almost  intolerable.  My  knife  is  worth  a 
shilling.  She  is  worth  him  and  all  his  relations.  He  attended  the  lectures 
last  winter  at  Charleston.  At  the  break  of  day  ghosts  troop  home  to 
church-yards.  I  have  sinned  in  that  I  have  betrayed  the  innocent  blood  ; 
and  they  said  what  is  that  to  us  ?  see  thou  to  that.  A^hosoever  lovcth 
father  or  mother  more  than  me,  is  not  worthy  of  me.  They  were  taught 
grammar  by  an  eminent  professor.  Be  it  remembered,  that  it  ever  has 
been  the  pride  and  boast  of  America,  that  the  rights  for  which  she  fought, 
were  the  rights  of  mankind.  Thy  will  be  done  m  earth  as  it  is  in  he  .ven. 
Have  you  come  before  at  last  ?— yo'i  always  came  behind  before.  Mn  thinks 
I  see  the  portals  of  eternity  wide  open  to  receive  him.  Me  thought  T  was 
incarcerated  beneath  the  mighty  d^^ep.  He  only  maketh  me  to  dwell  in 
safety.  Man  shall  not  live  by  bread  alone,  but  by  every  word  that  pro- 
ceedeth  out  of  the  mouth  of  God.  The  word  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt 
among  us,  and  we  beheld  his  glory.  For  I  know  that  in  me,  that  is,  in  my 
flesh,  dwelleth  no  good  thing.  Whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth 
doing  well.  God  alone  is  omniscient.  The  soldiers  were  pressed  so  closely 
together,  that  they  were  in  one  another's  way.  Take  heed  that  ye  speak  not 
to  Jacob.  The  Lacedemonians  substituted  iron  instead  of  gold,  f  )r  cur- 
rency. He  came  down  from  the  mountain.  As  the  mountains  are  round 
about  Jerusalem,  so  the  angel  of  the  Lord  encampcth  around  abo'nt  them 
that  fear  him.  He  recited  his  former  calamities,  to  which  was  now  .to  be 
added  that  he  was  the  destroyer  of  the-man  who  had  expiated  hiai  He 
whom  thou  now  hast,  is  not  thy  husband,  in  that  saidst  thou  truly,  i  wish 
you  to  believe  that  I  would  not  willfully  hurt  a  fly.  I  am  glad  that  an 
opportunity  is  afforded   me  for  re()uiting  your  kindness.     The  T.ord'God 


126  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath  of  life,  and  man  became  a  living  soul. 
He  will  become  a  man. 

0  ye  banished  seed  be  glad  ! 
Christ  our  advocate  is  made : 
Us  to  save,  our  flesh  assumes, 
Brother  to  our  souls  becomes. 

1  know  that  my  Redeemer  lives, 

And  ever  from  the  skies, 
Looks  down  and  watches  all  my  dust 
Till  he  shall  bid  it  rise. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

PBCULIAR    CONSTRUCTIONS.    IDIOMS.    INTRICACIES,    AND    SOLUTION    OP 
DIFFICULT    SENTENCES,    PROMISCUOUSLY    ARRANGED. 

Rem. — As'iB  a  word  in  great  demand,  and  as  it  is  used  as  several  parts  of  speech, 
and  to  express  various  shades  of  meaning,  it  requires  special  notice.  (For  its  con- 
utruotion,  see  Part  I.,  Chap.  II.,  Model  10.) 

Example  1. — "  His  arfrninent  may  be  «immcd  up  as  follows."  As,  in  sentencea 
like  the  above,  is  a  covjunciive  advnb,  connecting  the  members  of  the  sentence, 
and  modifying /oZ/oiZ'S  Tbe  pronoun  it  is  almost  invariably  understood,  in  all  such 
constructions,  after  as;  as,  "*His  argumentmay  be  summed  up  as  it  follows."  This 
construction  of  as  must  not,  however,  be  confounded  with  that  in  which  it  follows 
'  such,  used,  as  .oome  suppose,  as  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  "  He  made  such  statements 
a«  follow,"  J.  e.,  he  made  guch  statements  as  they  are  which  follow. 

Example  2. — "  He  is  as  true  as  the  sun."  The  first  as  is  an  adverb,  and  modifies 
ii-ue ;  the  second  as  is  a  connective  adverb,  and  connects  the  members  of  the  sen- 
tence, is  being  understood. 

Example  .3.—"  He  thought  as  a  sage."  ^*,  in  this  example,  being  used  in  the 
sense  of  like,  may  be  considered  as  a  preposition;  as,  "He  thought  like  a  sage." 
But,  if  any  prefer  it,  the  ellipsis  may  be  supplied,  and  as  becomes  a  conjunctive 
adverb  ;  thus,  "  He  thought  as  a  sage  thinks." 

Example  4 "  I  adopted  him  as  my  heir."    In  this  example,  some  suppose  that 

a«  is  a  conjunction,  connecting  him  and  heir  ;  but.  as  it  has  precisely  the  sense  of 
for,  it  would  be  better  to  parse  it  as  a  preposition;  as,  "I  adopted  him /or  my 
he>r." 

Example  5. — "  He  was  eminent  as  a  soldier."  As.  in  this  example,  is  used  in  the 
sense  of  in-the-character-oj ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  preposition. 

Example  6.—"  He  was'ra^garded  as  accountable  for  all  the  consequtnces."  This 
sentence  rendered  plenary  will  read  thus  :  He  wasrpgarded  as  he  would  be  regarded, 
if    hf  were  accountable  for  all  the  consequences.    As,  then,  is  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

Example  7. — "  I  appreciate  your  recommendation  a»  having  contributed  greatly 
to  my  success."  Mr.  Bailey  explains  this  sentence  as  the  one  immediately  prece- 
ding. This  may  do  ;  yet  it  seems  tons  that  as  is  used  in  the  sense  of  the  preposi- 
tion for  :  as,  I  appreciate  your  recommendation  fff>-  having  contributed  to  my  suc- 
cess. If  thii-  view  is  cnrrVi^t.  as  i?  a  rrepo.=itioni  gnverriing  the  phrase  thitt  follows 
it  ;  cr  if  try  one  shouM  prpf.-r  it.  it  may  be  regarded  as  governing  havivg  contrib 
uttd,  considered  as  a  participial  noun. 

Example  8. — "  He  suffered  and  died  to  rederm  Buch  a  rebel  fl»me."  Someconiid- 


CONSTRUCTIVK    ORAMMAR.  127 

or  OS,  in  this  example,  a  proposition ;  but  this  usage  is  not  in   harmonv  with  tha 
prac^^.co  of  the  best  speakers  and  writers  of  the  prefent  age    nJr  canTi  bl  ubs« 
tuted  for  OS  unless  we  expunge  suc/i;  for  it  certainly  would  be  harsh  to  sav   He  «lf' 
fared  and  died  to  redeem  ,such  a  rebi4  like  me      The    tmfh    f=    T  /'     •       • 

inad^issable  except  by  p'oetio  licensr/whicT-  as''  Mr^ailey' ver^  JuTtly  r^mlrk: 
leSe^n^^l^rnSLSir"    ^ --^-^^  ^^-'^   be  u^.ed  ?nsCa?ora7S 

0  wondrous  love,  to  bleed  and  die, 

To  bear  the  cross  and  shame. 
That  guilty  sinners  such  as  I 

Might  plead  his  gracious  name  I 

jf^'n  s;^"^;;tc:it;:- ^^ritis.-^  "s^^^:;!^::^ 

It  points  out  th^idennty  of  a  general  fact,  thing,  or  circumst.ncef  n  compar  son 
with  a  connected  fact  or  proposition.  To  gire  its  extensive  etymology  would  be  a 
show  of  learning  eanly  made  ;  but  to  no  useful  purpose.  In  grammatiarZracter 
his  word.  ,n  its  modern  use.  is  an  adjective,  referring  to  the  nouns  fS£>^gway' 
kind,  degree,  reason  or  othoT  equivalent  words;  but.  having  a  second  re  "rent To  a 
proposition  for  which  the  single  word  is  the  summary  naml     As  signifies Ts  a  de- 

ir""'(SerCar7;ut"Grf''  ''''''  ''%f.r  i':  '''"'' ^"^  ''^  nouV  Sers^ood  aft 
•f  »!,  (^e«  harden  s  Grammar,  page  155).     The  view  of  Mr.  Cardell  is  curious   and 
If  the  reader  can  adopt  it,  ho  would  cut  a  long  work  short  curious,  ana, 

Example  9.—" A  great  many  horses  wer*  seen  feeding  on  the  prairies"  *•  A 
riTt'fS^hnr''°r'"'r'-''  ^"°^  phrases  is  a  great  many,  a  good 
hv  L.  ;.l/^^  .  ^''^  frequent  occurrence  in  colloquial  language,  and  adopted 
llZZl  r^t  "''^'"''J/   nevertheless,  faulty,  and  should    be  Avoided.     It  would 

etc  The  latter  e,r'  ^''^  "^"""'j  "'  "  """^  ^""■'^  '^"'"^^f'  «*"■'  '^  Worses  we  e  seen, 
?    w  Ji/r        "Pression,  a  good  many,  ,s,  perhaps.    m§re  faulty  than  the  former. 

B  .rra^iuL'^^i:'  """T^  "°^  "'"^""^  '^  ^^y-  y^rimany  persons  we  e  in  attendance 
But,  admitting  the  construction.-tiow  shall  we  di.p  ,seof  the  words  a.greatllTS^ 

ItTZr^,^.  '/  "°.'  "  ^71'  ^"'"'''  °'"  "  '^""'^  P"-''"'-  Nothing  can  be  mo?e^dear 
than  that  great  and  good  have  no  constructive  relation  with  the  nouns  persms^nl 
horses,  nor  has  a  any  grammatical  affioity  for  them.  But  great  evidentlv  modifies 
ZTv  r'  w  '7;«  r-'  v"'^*^/'-'  i«  a  secondary  adjectivTumitS/Se'^a^ttiv: 
ma^.y,  nor  would  ,t  be  am.ss,  if  any  prefer  it.  to    call   it  an  adverb  -and     as  a  also 

mTnneraS;.'!""^  "^^  ''  '^''   "^^  ''-     ^^^  -"^^  ^e   disposed '  0??^  th^sat: 

Some  suppose  an  ellipsis  of  a  preposition  in  such  constructions  ;  as  A  creatmanv 

0/ burses;  then,  according  to  this,  7nany  assumes  the  character  if  a  noun   anTas 

Zal-tT"  "'  '''  "'"''  '  "'  *°  ''''''^''-  "•^'*'  '^  «°-«  instances".  U  useS'witJort 

"  For  yet  a  many  of  your  horsemen  'pear. 
And  gallop  o'er  the  field." 
Example  10.        "  When  the  merry  bells  ring  round,  f 

And  the  jocund  rebecks  sound 
To  many  a  youth  and  many  a  maid 
Dancing  in  the  checkered  shade." 

The  peculiarity  of  this  construction  consists  of  the  construction *of  the  ind«finW. 
article  between  the  adjective  many  and  the  noun  to  whicjl  it  belongs  and "^^^ 
agreement  of  many  with  a  noun  of  the  singular  number.  ^  Is  here  suodo^^/k 
some  to  be  used  in  a  prepositional  sense  ;  fs,  Many  of  youth  J^  1^7  ma\d 
llorne  Tooke  considers  a,  in  such  insUnces.  to  be  a  corruption  of  of.  ThLL^lt 
vunds,  by  corrupting  the  sound  of  of,  as  is  frequently  done,    would  become  mZ/:; 

Teluig^ala;.'^  '"°^  "•"''''°  '"^  ''''  "•'^^«-  ^^^  "-"^  would'a^tSlwrL'SeTut'ia 

equivalent  to  one  dozen,  o«e  h«,.rfr.J^  eto      KLe    both  ioL    mav'h?'''''"?'  '*'" 
8pecifying  adjective.    See  Chap,  xvii.,  Remark  2     '"'''^ '"''^'   may  be  parsed  as  a 


128  A.NALYJiCAl.j  CO>STKl.  C'llVK    A.NU 

Exy»MPi,F,  12. — ■'  The  house  is  buildirp."'  "  Tho  house  is  being  built."  As  things 
may  he  in  a  progrosfive  unfinished  state,  v  e  evidentlj'  need  a  firm  of  words  to  es- 
pies it.  iiijJ,  for  the  loif  t  piirt,  what  is  o;  !lerl  the  progressive  form  ol  thu  v*rb, 
■wt  i  >  ;>  a  eou]l>in!iti(,n  if  the  vecb  io  : '.'  ;iril  imporftct  jnrtii'iple  [prcot  (].  does 
thii"  ;■!'•. lirHblv  well;  as,  '■  he  is  wall;ifi{/-"  "  Trees  are  (/rowirKj,"  etc.  But  theie 
are  i"  i:.«  cnnttrui'tii'ns  of  this  kind,  whiih  do  nut  express  the  sense  so  well;  ns, 
"  Tb.  i  •n.'-p  IS  I'liildipc/,"  eip.  The  oVjectiori  urged  :,gninft  this  forra  of  expression, 
is  tli:i  IS  iuildin'j  exj-restes  aotinn,  but  the  tubjeet  /to(/«' dues  not  jeiforiu  the  ac- 
tion, IS  ni't  the  agent.  liut  regarding  is  ns  the  ci  pula  and  building  as  the  predicate, 
then  v«  jridieate  of  house  a  progresfive  stutc,  which  is  all  that  is  really  deiiianded: 
nor  is  tl  if  «n  isolated  rase  in  wbich  an  active  fvrn)  is  used  in  a  pos.-ive  fense  ;  for 
we  fi'v.  •  '1  he  discourse  rends  wfll."  "The  Ti>sewo(,d  poHshen  fnely.''  "  Corn  se//."f 
high."  t  te.  These  are  couven-fiit  forms  of  expression,  and  are  well  autbentieated 
by  the  p't'Ctice  of  the  best  writers  and  speaker". 

The  latter  form  of  expressior,  viz  :  *'  The  house  is  teiiiy  built,''  is  of  recent  origin. 
It  Di.iGi-  i  f  first  Hp{)eaiaDce  sonio  forty  years  since  iu  fouie  of  the  newspaptr  jour- 
nals of  ft  I- day,  and  has  sinie  won  fiT  itxll  much  iuvor.  ndtwithstendinc  the  re- 
moriJirii)  <•■  .- of  gr.arainnriuiis  gcierally.  It  must  be  admitted,  nevertheless,  that 
the  fiin.  •  f  i-xpression  is  objectionable  ;  atd,  in  or'ier  to  S(e  the  full  force  of  the 
ohjictii'n,  let  us  subject  it  to  n  s'riit  an!il.\sis,  and  exsmine  the  'iieaning  of  each 
element  pepfrately.  Is  Irivg  hudt,  as  a  C'  mpoyi.d,  cnnsfsts  of  three  elements,  viz  : 
t«,  be.ih'j.  ni;d  luHt.  Is  (xpresse.v  merely  a  stale  of  Uiiig,  as  existing  now  ;  leivp 
expie.'-ses  an  ui  finished  state  of  tho  Vnbal  denotement — that  which  is  in  projiresa; 
7i\m\  Imilt,  ns  H  perfect  participle,  expretses  a  finished  state  of  the  verba,  oei.i.tement. 
Jlenci  we  si*'-  'hat  there  if  a  vani  of  hainiony  in  the  ii'eanirg  of  the  elements  of 
iibieh  this  t  xpiessiou  is  composed.  Butalctus  examine  it  in  a  logical  point  of 
view.  Ni  w  rt-garding  is  as  the  cupula  and  bci/'g  built  as  the  predicate,  it  is  obvious 
that  a  firi-htjd  .Ma!e  of  the  bouse  is  irnlicaied;  since  all  would  understand  in  such 
exprcs-ioi  s  as  "  the  house  being  built,"  that  the  woik  i.«  really  finished. 

Nfilhet  form  of  exprcs'sion  is  entirely  lieo  from  oljectii  ns  :  but  i  otb  aie  now  in 
ui-e,  ano  :.re  'ike!.>  tu  continue  so  ;  Act  »e  /.ivetiur   pieference  lo  ibe  foiuitr. 

ExAMi'i.K  IM.^"  The  k'liir  gave  me  a  gtnerous  reward  for  eommiiting  that  bar- 
baniis  nei."  O-inmittitnj  lUit  baibattus  act  inav  be  regarded  as  a  substantive 
pbriup.  povern' d  l>y  ibe  pre]  o.'ititn  /'or  ;  or.  if  a  more  ciiiieal  aijaly.sis  is  desired, 
coiiiwitli/",/  mav  I'C  regarded  as  a  ]  articpijil  ii<  uii,  }:o^ern(d  by  the  j  re|.osiiion /w, 
but,  stiil  iitaining  its  iifrimeu  as  a  p.-^rfi' ip,e,  ir  ;;.  v  rns  act  in  the  objective  case. 
We  prefer,  hi  wt  ver,  the  former  mode  of  u'spo^ilig  of  it,  as  it  is  more  simple,  and 
the  sense  equal iy  c'car.  V  lien,  In  f i  •  h  ctu^struciions,  the  participial  noun  is  liinii- 
td  by  ihc  o<  finite  article,  the  jrejosiiioB  rf  niusi  be  eonstrueci  alter  it;  as,  "The 
king  t  ave  me  a  generous  rcwanf  (o'r  the  eommitiing  of  that  tarbarcus  act."  Both 
forii  8  of  expre^sioI   i-re  wi  IJ  authentieaied. 

Ex  A)iPi  K  t4.— "  J  liH  niiiht  r"^  beii  g  unknown,  limited  the  sale  of  tho  book." 
Ti'ie  author's  leing  m  kiioii:it  is  a  subsianti\e  pLrase,  and  is  the  subject  of  the  verb 
Liintrd-  "*  b<  ugl^  autlwr  s  is  in  the  posse§sive  ease,  atd  governed  by  being  v»knowu, 
und  teiig  uiikiiowti  li.fcin  ty  itfell.  is  a  participle,  yet  they  sixfold  nit  be  separated 
inpar.-iij;  In  sui  h  ct  nsiruct'ons  thecoun  is  m  metio'ee  writu  n  without  the  pos- 
sessixesi^i  ;  ns  '■  The  nutAo/' b.  ing  unknov»D,"  etc.  Ihisprattiee  suould,  bcwevcr, 
be  ci'Tciiji'y  avo'dt"  "' 

Exj»mpik  la  — ■•  I  have  some  recerection  of  his  fafber'f  being  judge  "  Authorg 
diflcr  \»?_\  wide'v  with  r; sj  eci  io  the  ninrner  ■  f  disusing  of  tie  wotd  jrtdi'e  in 
thie  SI  rti  n-*".  Mr  <■•  (>i'ri  Briv  i  ooLtiriids  il  ai  jt/(fge  is  in  ihe  possessive  iaM,[ut 
ly  aviM'Siti- n  wi.h /////irr**.  Dr  Bullions  says  u  ii:  in  the  objeciive  case;  and  A.r. 
T  UI  li'f  1 1  ii'enct.s 'hilt  11  s  a  prt.ciiia'e  i.ou  ioative.  Now.  vhc  is  to  dicide  when 
Doetii'-i  d  tajrrie?  Ai  all  t\"nts.  I  bfve  some  re-oili  eiii  n  of  -omeibJUf;  — wbat  )8 
tt  ut  S' II  el*  ing  ?  It  i-^'oi  a  rvclkeii' u  of  a  jvd(.'f  siui|  ly.  ror  of  aty  sn'gle  word 
in  ii>- J  bi;  sr.  Then  w  ■  at  is  ii  ?  Ji  eviderty  is,  i//4-yi/i//<?'s  biihg  a  judijc-  AViiy 
ii"  I  il  en  )  «r,-^  It  US  a  fubnaniive  jbicte  'ii  ibe  <  I  jeciive  « ase,  f:ovii  ueil  by  the 
)  lepifHii  1  r.f.  Ibe  qoistif^n  icw  t.  be  decu  e*.,  '.=,  wbat  form  must  a  pronoun,  u.'-ed 
in  .-will  c<  I  tireoiioDS.  assume?  1  etf.  -gwii  grf  mu  ai'ans  oisagiet,  uud  piai  tict  is 
iiot  I  ntfo:iti      This  will  be  i.oncni  in  she  i'  IIow^tk  ixufoj'ies. 

I  .\.A»irj.ii  16  — •'  lie  vas  n-  t  su  i  of  iiif  leir.g  me."  •'  Its  Icing  me  ne»=rs  make 
n.  vji'fif  lei  <  e  in  \our  dttetn.  ii  ain  n  "  1  J  <*  pi  tition  assijuiea  by  l>r.  LuiIh  ns  is, 
'hat  the  1  r>  noun  shoulii  a^  suiue  'be  ol  jcoi\  e  loi  ii  ;  I  u'  Mr  Butler  lontt  ids  for  its 
I'tii'g  a  ji  Lviii  ate  nou  ioativ  k,.     lieie  w-e  aie-egain  in  a  diieiLma,  aLd  our  pen  i^  sus- 


^-"ONbnCv.  CllVK    OUAMilAK.  ]-_'0 

peTidod  over  ffar  Taper  in  tremulous  suspenpe,  Tiotknowt»g  where  to  light.  0,  hap^ 
py  thouubt!  wc  will  split  th«>  difference,  and  say  when  such  a  phrase  is  the  subject 
of  the  verb,  the  pronoun  should  a$?nnie  the  subjective  form  ;  but,  when  it  is  the  06- 
^ect  of  a  transitive  verb  or  prcpogitior,  it  should  assume  the  objective  forto  ;  as, 
"lie  w^s  not  euro  of  its  being  meP'  '"Its  being  /,  needs  make  no  difference  in 
your  detcrtiiination."  In  asKuming  this  position,  we  may  be  wrong  once,  but  there 
IS  a  chance  for  the  euineut  authors  whom  we  have  ^ust  mciiiioned  to  be  wrong 
iwice. 

Example  17. — "  To  affect  to  be  11  Lord  in  one's  closet,  would  bo  a,  romantic  mad- 
n«88." 

In  this  exair.plt  Mr.  (roold  Brown  supposes  I/trd  to  bo  in  the  objective  case  after 
/o  fee,  and  that  wj';(/;)css  is  in  the  rinmimvtivc  after  trould  hi-  H'itCi  respect  to  the 
premi.-^es  from'  which  Mr.  Brown  has  drawn  this  conclusion  that  Zjjrd  is  in  the  ob- 
jeciive  case,  we  aro  not  fuily  informed.  We  can  not,  however,  astree  with  him  in 
this  partii'ular.  What  would  be  a  romantic  madness.^  To  affect  to  be  a  Lord  hi 
one's  clnset.  Then  this  entire  phrase  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  would  be,  and  inad- 
t'.esn  is  ill  the  r.€ininativc  case,  predicated  of  it. 

ExAMi'LB  IS. — "  She  extolled  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  under- 
standiDk;."  The  construction  of  tbis  sputence  is  laulty.  It  is  a  funeJameiital  law  of 
oon^truetion,  that  all  the  part.s  of  a  scn'enoe,  should  be  made  to  harmorri/.e  together. 
The  senteiici"  siiou'd  be  construed  thus:  "She  extolled  the  excellent  understanding 
of  the  tiirinor.  as  she  called  him.'' 

Example  19  —•'They  took  possession  of  the  city."  **  The  city  was  taken  posses- 
fie>>i  (•/  by  thoiu.'  *'  lie  was  laughed  at."  Such  expressions  as  "  Tie  eit.v  wns  ta- 
ken po.-sossion  of,"  "  He  was  laugheif  at."  etc.,  are  id.uuiatic.  But  as  they  give  .^ome 
varieiy  and  copiousness  to  language,  they  are  deemed  admissable.  The  peculiarity 
consists  io  inaKiRg  ttie  obj«ct  of  a  modifying  element  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the 
passive  voice,  au  1  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  and  the  preposition  are  T^laced 
i  1  pre.lication.  [n  such  nxuree^fivvf  us  "  Ife was  Imigked  at,"  "  Tfi'<-  husiiirssis  to 
be  loeked  to,"  etc.,  the  verbs  aro  regarded  as  intransitive,  though  tbey  have  the 
form  of  tlie  pas>ive  voice.  When  ttie  preposition  is  thus  thrown  in  predication, 
some  call  it  aiiadvero,  but  it  would  be  better,  perhaps,  to  parse  tlie  v;hjle  as  a  com- 
jmuni-  verb. 

KiAMi'i.K  '2ii. — "  I  bad  rather  go  "  "  I  had  as  lief  stay."  "  He  had  ou;L,ht  to  go." 
The.-e  and  similar  txpressi(ni8  are  palpably  erroneous,  and  should  not  be  imii;;ted 
by  any  who  niiy  wi,«h  to  speak  and  write  the  l^nglish  language  correctly,  notwith- 
standing they  miiv  have  been  use!  by  aiihors  of  soma  celebrity  s-e  writers.  What 
kind  of  ft  teiise  is  /m'/g^oaud  /iads'ay?  The  pluperfect  texse  is  formed  by  prelix- 
ing  fied  to  the  pcifect  participle;  nor  has  Imve  ir  any  of  its  variations  aty  gram- 
maticil  affinity  lor  .'iny  part  of  the  verb,  e-xcept  the  perfect  participle.  The  correct 
graiumatical  fo'-m  of  exiire.'-sion  is  .equally  concise,  ami  more  euphonious.  Where, 
then,  is  th«  in<ftes.-ity  for  tbis  innov.-iiiott  which  introduces  irregularity  and  confu- 
sion into  the  format  on  of  the  ten^e'' ?  The  following  arc  the  correct  expressions: 
"  I  would  rctiher  go  "     "  I  ito/zWaslkf  stay."     "  Veoiigkt  to  go." 

Bxamplb  :^1.— "If  thou  hjdst  been  h^re,  my  brother  lutd  not  died."' 

''  rIaS  the  deep  earth  her  stores  confined. 
This  heart  Aarfi.fotCM  sweet  peace  of  mind.''  * 

JLid  (Utd  and  hud  known  express  time  po>terinr  to  the  time  of  the  tenses  of  tho 
verbs  wiifi  which  th  jy  nre  a^S'1Ciateli  ;  tieneo  they  should  be  in  the  Fote/itial  ii.xi- 
perfect,  in'^lead  of  the  i'id'cative  pluperfect;  as  the  Fotcniiiil  pluperfect  is  the  ^amo 
in  point  of  time  as  the  ludicdtive.  fast.  Better  thus:  '•  If  thou  hudsi  been  her*-,  loy 
brother  tpovld  i\«t Juive  dud.'  etc.  •  This  u^e  of  the  Indicative  pluperfect  lor  the 
Potenti^ii  poiperfect,  IS  a<lo\table  by  pietic  license;  but  should  not  be  imitated  m 
prose  wtititij;.  _ 

ExAMPLB  22.—  "  To  confess  the  ir*ith,  I  was  in  f»ult."  In  this  and  similar  ex- 
ample-, the  iiilinitive  is  s  .id  to  be  absolute,  having,  as  is  suppohcd,  no  word  upon 
which  it  can  depend  in  constr 'ciion.  But  the  infiriitive  will  irequet  ily  fimj  a  )i,o\ - 
erpln-r  won)  by  rrnnspo«iiig  ibc  .'■entenee,  and  eui.])l.Mng  the  phrase /'«  ofdcr  ;  m>, 
*'  To  cure  the  spirit  of  disconlent,  let  us  coti^iricr  hi  w  iilile  v.e  Oc-erv  • ,''  i.  e  "  L-  I 
«i8  em-uler  bow  litije  we  ut^^erve  in  order  to  cure  the  tpiiit  of  oitconten:."  in 
eoiue  ca.xoB  the  plimso  t/i  (»/•«;?/•  need  not  be  tuppued;  a.<  ibj  if-tiniiive  will  find  a 
governiiig  word  in  the  ei«uK(  which  succeeds  11,  r.or  is  it  ab^ol^Itl!y  i;ecossary  in  the 
■fc.ximpl'j  Ju^t  eneJ.     There    aio    other  <-oiiftMicticpn«    in    which    tn.-re  is  an  obvious 


180  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

ellipsis,  which,  when  sappliod,  will  furnish  a  governing  word  for  the  infinitivft ; 
guch  as  the  following  :   "  //  you  will  allow  vie  to  confess  the  truth,"  etc. 

The  characteristic  difference  between  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  and  a  verb  in 
any  other  mode,  is  that  Iho  infinitive  can  not  limit  the  affirmation  to  any  particular 
subject ;  but,  in  all  other  respects,  the  infinitive  is  similar  to  all  other  verbs  ;  and, 
should  it  be  regarded  as  absolute,  still  it  has  the  same  governing  power  ov^  other 
words  that  follow  it,  as  if  the  word  on  which  it  depends  were  obvious. 

Example  23. — "  What  if  I  do  not  go  ?"  In  this  example  and  similar  coastruc- 
tions,  lohat  belongs  to  an  implenary  member  which  may  readily  be  inferred  from 
the  sense  of  the  construction  ;  as,  What  will  be  the  cansequence  if  I  go.  (For  con- 
struction of  what  though,  see  Model  17,  Part  First.) 

Example  24. — "Israel  burned  none  sace  Haiar."  "  I  would  to  God  that  not 
only  thou,  but  also  all  that  hear  me  this  day,  were  both  almost  and  altogether  such 
as  I  am,  except  these  bonds."  "  Let  high-born  seraphs  tune  the  lyre."  Stvse  and 
except,  in  constructions  like  the  above,  are  generally  part^ed  as  prepositions,  though 
Dr.  Webster  says  that  they,  as  well  as  let,  according  to  an  idiom  of  our  language, 
are  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode  withoat  a  specified  Tiommative.  He  also  regards 
but,  when  used  in  the  sense  of  except,  iis  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  without  a 
specified  nominative.  That  these  wards  weje  e^ce  used  as  verbs,  is  generally  con- 
ceded ;  hence,  if  any  should  prefer  parsing  them  as  verbs,  they  have  unquestion- 
ably the  right  to  do  so.     [See  Models  for  Construction,  Part  I.] 

Example  25. — "To  the  which  ye  are  called."  When  tc/ae/t  is  limited  by  the 
definite  article,  it  is  generally  parsed  as  a  noun.     This  construction  is  now  obsolete. 

ExAM\-LE  20.—"  I  can  not  but  believe  it."  This  sentence  is  incorrect,  and  must 
be,  as  Mr.  Bailey  justly  remarks,  remodeled  before  it  is  paised.  It  may  be  ren- 
dered thus  :  I  can  not  do  otherwise  than  believe  it. 

Example  27. — "  The  council  met  at  half  past  four  o'clock."  Past,  in  this  sen- 
tence, is  a  preposition ;  four  may  be  parsed  as  a  substitute  for  the  fourth  hour,  and 
in  the  objective  case,  governed  hy  past ;  o'  is  a  contraction  of  o«  or  of,  and  is  a 
preposition  cennecting /o«'' and  c/ocA. 

Example  '28. — "  We."  instead  of  ./. — By  an  idiom  of  our  language,  we  is  some- 
times used  instead  of  /.  This  may  be  done  when  the  speaker  or  writer  represents 
in  some  sort  a  party  or  class.  The  monarch  represents  a  nation  or  collection  of  na- 
tions ;  hence  he  says,  "  We  charge  you  on  allegiance  to  ourself."  The  preacher  rep- 
resents a  certain  denomination  of  Christians  or  a  class  of  ministers  who  believe  the 
same  doctrines;  and  hence  he  says,  "  We  preach  Christ  and  him  crucified."  The 
editor  generally  represents  a  certain  party,  or  he  may  have  an  associate  editor ; 
hence  he  says,  "  We  admit  the  writer  to  onr  columns,  but  do  not  hold  ourself  res- 
ponsitde  for  his  opinions."  The  author  represents  frequently,  though  somewhat  in- 
definitely, a  very  large  class,  not  only  embracing  authors  wiio  write  on  similar  sub- 
jects, but  also  men  in  general;  hence  he  says, 

"  Vice  seen  so  oft,  familiar  with  her  face. 
We  first  endure,  then  pity,  then  embrace," 

We,  thus  used,  is  a  kind  of  mixture  of  plurality  and  unity  ;  hence  self,  in  stead 
ef  selves,  is  annexed  to  the  pronoun  our;  as,  ourself,  not  ourselves.  By  the  us©  of 
we  instead  of  /,  in  instances  l:ke  the  fiTegoing,  the  speaker  or  writer  may  avoid 
egotism,  which  is  generally  offensive. 

Example  29.—"  The  very  chiefest  apo.=tle."— Fery,  as  a  modifier,  generally  lim- 
its adjectives  in  iho  positive  degree;  as.  Very  great;  in  which  case,  it  expresses  a 
very  high  degree,  but  not  the  highest.  But  according  to  an  idiom  of  the  Greek 
language,  which  admits  of  double  superlatives,  very  sometime*  limits  adjectives  in 
the  superlative  degree,  which  is  an  advance  on  the  superlative.  Such  e.xpre.'sions 
Bts  the  most  straitest  sect,  very  chiefest,  etc.,  ure  not  admissable,  according  to  the' 
rules  of  English  syntax. 

Very,  used  as  an  adjective,  admits  of  the  superlative  degree,  but  never,  perhaps, 
of  the  comparative  :  as,  "  He  is  the  veriest  fool  who  ii-ites  himself  to  spile  his 
neighbor." 

Example  .^0.—"  The  public  are  notified."  Notijy  means  to  malie  known  :  but  the 
public  are  not  made  known  ;  but  sometliing  is  made  known  to  the  public  ;  hence  this 
form  of  expression  has  been  condemued  by  some  eminent  philologists.  Guided  by 
the  etyn-ologic»l  import  of  the  word,  we  too  would  decide  against  this  use  of  it; 
yet  it  is  sanctioned  by  reputable  usage  in  the  United  States.  Most  writers  and 
peakers  associate  with  the  noun  public  a  plural  verb  j  doubtless  beoauee  it  is  a  noun 


ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND  181 

ef  maltitude  ;  but  does  it  not  convey  idea  of  unity  ?  It  UDquesfloRably  does;  then 
a  singular  verb  is  preferable,  According  to  the  principles  of  grammar,  and  is  cer- 
tainly more  euphonious.    "  Th%public  is  more  disposed  to  censure  than  to  praise." 

Addison. 
EiABiPLB  31. — "  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see?  A  man  clothed  in  soft  raimentT' 
At  the  time  of  the  translation  of  our  verson  of  the  Scriptures  into  tho  English 
language,  the  preposition  for  was  frequently  construed  before  the  infinitive  to  ox- 
presij  a  purpose  or  design.  The  Sttbstantive  character  of  the  infititive  readily  ad- 
mits of  this  construction,  though  it  is  now  obsolete,  and  only  occasionally  met  with 
in  poetry ;  as, 

"  Although  yen  flotMrish  like  the  rose. 

While  in  its  branches  green; 
Your  sparkling  eyes  in  death  muit  close, 

No  mere  fer  to  be  seen." 

The  learner  may  be  desirous  to  know  what  to  do  with /or  in  such  ■constractions. 
Son>e  consider  it  a  censtituent  part  of  tho  infinitive,  others  r»Rard  it  as  an  adverb, 
and  some,  not  without  reason,  would  expunge  it;  but,  if  retained  at  all,  it  would  be 
better  to  parse  it  as  a  preposition,  having  the  infinitive  for  its  object. 

Example  32. — "  Oot/-  tho  signature  of  Fanny  Fern."  It  is  true  that  all  writin,? 
is  over  the  signature  ;  but  as  the  terra,  in  law,  implies  authority  or  indorsement,  it 
is  generally  said,  "  Given  under  my  hand  and  seal."  The  use  of  tender,  instead  of 
over,  is  generally  adhered  to  by  tho  best  writers,  both  of  Europe  and  America. 

Example  33. — "  Ho  preached  the /arteraZ  of  bis  friend."  It  would  be  better  to 
say.  "  He  preached  fhe  fu/ieral  eerinonof  his  friend." 

E-V.AMi'LK  34; — "  I  care  not  w)/ic<Aer  he  goes  or  wJietJurhe  stavs."  The  repeti- 
tion of  tchether  in  tho  hitter  clause  ef  the  sentence  is  worse  than  useless.  It 
should  ho,  "  I  care  not  whether  he  goes  cr  stays." 

Example  35 — "  How  do  you  do  ?"  In  this  example  do  becomes  auxiliary  to  it- 
self, and  both  words  should  be  parsed  as  one.  But,  as  do  is  not  here  used  in  its 
proper  sense,  and  is  inelogan',  it  would  be  much  better  to  nso  tho  concise  and  ap' 
?ropriiite  expression,  "  How  are  you  '"  or,  "  How  is  your  health?" 

Example  3R. — "Good  morning."  "Good  evening."  "  ftood-bye."  These  and 
eimilar  expressions  are  tho  cimmon  forms  of  salutation,  used  both  at  the  meeting 
and  parting  of  friends,  and  they  generally  express  some  emotion.  They  are  re- 
garded by  some  as  interjections,  but  others  consider  them,  or,  at  lea.st,  some  of 
tliem,  adverbs.  But  they  are  nil  susceptible  of  a  regular  eonstrui-tion,  if  we  sup- 
ply the  proper  ellipsis  ;  as,  '■  Good  morning,  i.  e.,  I  wish  you  ma^  have  a  good  morn- 
ing," or-'  I  wish  a  good  morning  may  be  to  you."  "  Oood-bye,''  i.  e.,  *'  Ma//  good 
bo  by  yoH."  OT  "  Ka^j  a,  good-bye  ho  _mit\i  yon."  To  these  maybe  added  Farewell, 
Adieu,  Welcome,  etc.  (Velcome,  i.  ».,  you  are  welcome;  then  welcome  is  an  adjec- 
tive belonging  to  you  understood.  Adieu  And  Farewell  are  expres.-r.  e  of  a  bless- 
ing, and,  as  such,  are  in  the  nominative  case  to  vuKf  be;  as,  '*  Moy  an  adieu,  or 
ilessirig  be  with  you,''  etc. 

Example  37.—"  I  that  speak  to  ye."  Though  ye  it  the  plural  of  thou,  and  in 
the  nomiuativo  case,  poets  sometimes  use  it  in  the  objective.  As  poets  are  sometimes 
hard  run  to  complete  their  syllabic  measure,  they  are  allowed  a  lioense  in  poetic 
composition  which  is  not  admissable  in  proio  ;  but  we  see  no  sufficient  reason  fortha 
uso  of  ye  instead  of  you,  the  proper  objective,  especially  in  blank  verse.  It  wou'd, 
therefore,  be  better  to  say,  "  I  that  speak  to  voa." 

Example  38. — *»In  our  midst-"  As  our  uniformly  denotes  possession,  and  as 
midst  is  indefinite  as  to  locality,  the  construction  has  been  objected  to.  The  amsnd- 
ment  proposed,  is,  "  //»  f  A'?  tnidst  of  »s."  But,  as  the  former  construction  is  conve- 
nient, and  sanctioned  by  authority  of  the  highest  grade;  such,  for  instance,  «s 
George  Bancroft  and  others,  it  will  probably  continue  in  use. 

Example  39. — But  if.  But  and  if.  ''  B"t,  if  the  modifying  element  is  short,  it 
would  be  better  to  omit  the  comma  '  "  But  sad.  •/  that  ferv«nt  say  in  his  heart, 
my  lord  delayoth  his  ooming,  and  shall  begin  to  beat  the  mcn-.«ervants  and  maid- 
ens, and  to  eat  and  drink,  and  to  be  drunken,  the  lord  of  that  servant  will 
come,"  etc. 

When  two  or  more  conjunctions  are  construed  in  juxta  position  with  each  other, 
they  should  not  be  mistaken  for  compound  conjunctions;  for  each  generally  gives 
a  member  to  which  it  belongs.  But,  in  the  first  example,  belongs  to  the  member, 
it- vmuld  be  better  to  omit  th' comma,  oonvieQXmg  H  with  something  which  preopd«ni. 


132  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE     ANI^ 

The  member  to  which  if  belongs  is  obvioua.  The  sentence  may  be  thus  construed  : . 
But  it  would  be  better  So  omit  the  comma,  if  the  modifying  element  is  short. 

In  the  second  example,  bvt  belongs  to  the  member,  the  lord  of  that  se)-vant  loill 
come-  /f  belongs  to  the  involved  member.  And  is  superfluous,  having  no  corres- 
ponding word  in  the  o/jginal,  nor  is  there  any  me'mbli  to  which  it  can  belong. 

Example  40. — "He  rode  almost  to  town,."  The  adverb  alrjiost  modifies  the 
phrase  to  toinn,  and  not  rode,  as  is  frequently,  though  Erroneously,  supposed;  for  he- 
did  not  almost  ride,  but  did  ride,  and  almost  t»  town,. 

Example  41. — "Bonaparte  had  <Arce  horses  .y/iot  under  him."  Some  parse  tliree 
horsef  shot  under  Mm  as  a  substantive  phrase,  governed  by  had;  but,  if  we  fupply 
the  ellipsis,  the  constraeclion  will  be  natural  and  easy  ;  &i,  "  Sonaparto  had  three 
horses  which  were  shot  under  him." 

Example  42. —  To  boot.  "I  will  give  my  l^orse  for  yours  and  ten  dollars  to 
boot."  To  6oot  is  purely  Anglo-Saxon,  and  that  which  is  given  in  barter  to  make 
the  value  of  the  commodities  equal ;  henc«  it  is  obviouslv  a  noun.  Some  have  sup- 
posed that  the  to  is  a  preposition,  used  in  the  sense  of  for,  and  governs  boot  in  the 
objective  ca^e  ;  as,  "  I  will  give  you  ton  dollars /<>;•  booti"  But  regarding  to  boot-  as  a 
noun,  as  it  means  the  sam«  thing  as  ten  dollars,  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  put  by 
apposition  with  dollars;  as,  "  I  will  give  my  horse  for  yours,  and  I  will  give  you 
ten  dollars  to  boot.'' 

To  boot  is  supposed  by  some  te  be  an  adverb,  used  in  the  sense  of  over,  moreover, 
or  besid-es;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  has  something  of  an  adverbial  meaning ;. 
nor  is  it  an  unusual  thing  for  nouns  to  be  used  adverbially,  8.ich  as  denote  time, 
dir^ension,  valuation,  etc. 

Ijg^REM. — As  an  idiom  lea  mode  of  speech  peculiar  to  a  languag"!,  poets  may  be  said 
to  have  their  idioms,  or  peculiarity  of  expression  ;  since  they  are  rllowed,  by  poetic 
liceute,  to  use  modes  of  expression  peculiar  to  poetic  composition ;  a", 

"  To  save  himself  an^  household  from  amidst 
A  world  devote  to  uaivcrsal  wreck." 

Devote  is  hero  used  for  devoted,  and  manjr  similar  ca9«3  are  met  with  in  po- 
etic composition. 


CHAPTEIi     XXVI. 


THE    GRAMMATICAL     LANGUAGE    OP.    THE. BIBLE. 

OuB  translation  of  the  Bible  was  made  more  than  two  hundred  years- 
»go,  with  great  care,  by  scholars  eminent  as  linguists,  and  as  the  transla- 
tion was  made  under  the  authority  of  King  James  I.,  it  is  sometimes  called 
King  James'  Bible.  It  is  not  only  &fait7tful  and  generally  correcMransla- 
tion  from  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages,  but,  at  the  time  it  was 
made,  it  was  almost  entirely  free  from  grammatical  errors.  But,  as  the  lan- 
guage has  been  gradually  improving  for  more  than  two  hundred  years,  it 
has,  of  course,  undergone  many  changes  ,  hence  the  Bible  reader  need  not 
be  suprised  to  find  grammatical  rules,  as  they  now  exist,  ocasionally  viola- 
ted ;  as  scarcely  any  change  has  been  made  in  the  grammatical  language  of 
the  Bible  since  its  translation.  A  few  of  the  changes  which  have  taken 
place  win  be  briefly  noticed  in  their  appropriate  classes. 

1.  Be  is  used  in  the  Bible^  in  the  indicative  present,  for  are ;  as,  "There 
le  some  standing  here,"  that  is,  there  are  8ome  standing  here.  "  Get  thee 
behina  me,  Satan  ;  for  thou  s*¥orest  not  of  the  things  that  he  of  God,"  i.  «., 
the  thintrs  that  nrr.  of  God. 


2.  Those  verbs  that  agree  with  the  third  person  singular,  formerly  as- 
sumed the  termination  th  and  eth  instead  of  «  or  «s  ;  as,  He  seeth,  for  He 
tees  ;  walketh  for  walks,  readeth  for  reads,  loveth  for  loves,  etc. 

3.  Sereral  verbs  in  the  past  tense  have  changed  their  form ;  as,  Bare  for 
hore,  drave  for  drove,  etc.     (See  List  of  Irregular  Verbs.) 

4.  The  verb  vrist  to  think  or  imagine,  and  wot,  to  know,  are  now  entire* 
ly  obsolete. 

Wit  is  also  obsolete,  except  ir>  the  infinitive,  to  introduce  an  explanation, 
or  enumeration  of  particulars  ;  as,  "  There  are  seven  persons,  to  t/rit,  four 
men  and  throe  women."  In  this  sense,  it  means  to  say  or  to  name  ;  hence 
comes  7iaweZy  ;  as,  "viz.,  four  men  and  three  women."  7b  «*i  occurs 
several  times  in  the  Scriptures  ;  as,  "  And  the  man  wondering  at  her,  .held 
his  peace,  to  toit,  whether  the  Lord  had  made  his  journey  prosperous,  or 
not,"  *.  «.,  to  Jcnow  whether  the  Lord  had  made  his  journey  prosperous  or 
not- 

TFtf,  wo<,  Mwand  wist,  seem  to  have  one  common  origin,  viz.  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  witan,  which  signifies  to  know,  to  imagint,  to  think,  etc.  Wit  ap- 
pears to  be  ihQ  present  and  w»t  the  past  tense,  though  wot  was  formerly 
used  in  the  present.      Wit  is  the  past  tense  of  wis. 

5.  The  preposition  for  was  formerly  used  before  the  infinitive  mode  to 
express  a  purpose  or  design  ;  as,  "  What  went  ye  ont  for  t»  see  f  A  proph- 
et?"    (See  Peculiar  Constructions,  Example  31.) 

6.  The  pronouns  his  and  her  formerly  represented  nouns  ef  the  neuter 
gender  instead  of  its  ;  as,  "  If  the  salt  b^ve  lost  his  savor."  "  On  either 
side  of  the  river,  was  there  the  tree  of  life,  which  bare  twelve  manner  of 
fruits,  and  yielded  her  fruits  every  month."  (Rev.  xxii,  2.)  The  pronoun 
his  stands  for  salt,  and  should  be  its  ;  and  h^r,  in  the  last  example,  aftands 
for  tree  ;  and  should  be  its. 

7.  The  conjunctive  form  of  the  subjunctive  mode  was  formerly  used  in 
the  perfect  tense,  which  use  is  now  discontinued ;  as,  "  If  the  salt  have  lost 
his  savor,"  i.  e-,  if  the  salt  has  lost,  etc. 

8.  The  relative  which  is  generally  used  in  the  Bible  instead  of  who  ;  as, 
^  Our  father  which  art  in  heaven."  This  use  of  which  was  grammatical  at 
the  time  the  Bible  was  translated. 

9.  Whoever  is  used  instead  of  whoso  and  whosoever.  Whichever  h'as  also 
superseded  whichsoever.  Whichsoever  is  sometimes  separated  by  an  inter- 
▼ening  noun ;  as,  "  On  which  side  soever  the  king  turned  his  eyee."  Which- 
ever should  be  parsed  as  a  specifying  adjective,  notwithstanding  it  is  divi- 
ded ;  as,  "  Whichsoever  side,"  eto: 

10.  Pleonasms  are  frequently  met  with  in-  the  Bible,  which  are  seldom  or 
never  used  now  ;  as,  "  The  sout  that  sinneth^  it  shall  die."  "  He  that  en- 
tereth  not  by  the  door  into  the  sheepfold,.  but  climbeth  up  by  some  other 
way,  the  same  is  a  fchief  and  Sk  robber."  "  ffe  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let 
him  hear  what  the  spirit  saith  to  the  churches."  In  the  first  and  second 
examples,  two  nominatives  are  found  in  one  clause,  viz.,  the  soul  it  shall 
die.  Me,  the  same  is  a  thief  and  robber..  In  the  last  example,  some  sup' 
pose  Tie  to  be  in  the  nominative  to  a  verb  understood,  and  construe  the  sen- 
tence thus  :  "  He  that  hath  ears,  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hoar."  But  itr. 
appears  clear  to  us  that  he  should  be  him  in  the  objective  case,  put  by  ap- 
position with  him  in  the  latter  end  of  the  clause  ;  as,  "Let  him  hear,  him 
that  hath  ears." 

Such  expressions  as  the  which,  like  unto,  how  that,  etc.,  are  also  pleon- 
astic. The  is  now  obsolete  before  which  ;  to  or  unto,  after  Hke,  and  hour 
before  that. 

11;  00't4.    •' G'd-fo  now,  ye  rich  men,  weep  and  howl  for  your  miseries 

16> 


184  ANALYTIOAX,  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

that  shall  cotne  upon  you,"  The  phrase  go  to  now,  which  occurs  frequeti't- 
ly  in  the  Bible,  is  obscure,  and  of  difficult  solution.  The  original,  if  liter- 
ally translated,  would  be  come  now  \  then  to  is  excluded,  and  the  sense  be- 
comes clear.  Oo  to,  however,  seems  to  have  been  used  in  the  English  lan- 
guage formerly  in  exhortation  and  especially  in  scornful  exhortation. 

12.  irom  whence.  "Remember,  therefore, /rom  w^enc«  thou  art  fallen, 
and  repent."  As  the  adverb  whence  is  a  kind  of  substitute  {or  from  what 
place  or  state,  the  use  tifrom,  before  it,  is  unnecessary  ;  hence  pleonastic. 
jFrom,  however,  is  still  used  before  the  adverbs  hence  and  whence,  and  will 
probably  continue  to  be  so  used  ;  for  remonstrance  has  almost  ceased.  In 
parsing,  the  preposition /rom  may  be  expunged,  or  parsed  with  the  adverb, 
as  an  adverbial  phrase.  From,  is  also  sometimes  used  before  far  ;  as,  "  He 
came/r^ni/ar."  In  this  case,  an  ellipsis  may  be  supplied;  as,  He  came 
from  afar  country  ;  or  from  far  may  be  parsed  adverbially. 

13.  The  article  an  was  formerly  construed  before  all  words  commencing 
"with  h  ;  as.  An  house.  An  hundred  sheep.  This  use  of  an  is  now  obso- 
lete, except  when  h  is  silent,  or  the  word  to  which  it  belongs  is  accented 
on  the  second  syllable.  In  reading  the  Bible,  we  frequently  meet  such  ex- 
pfessions  as  an  hungered;  as,  "At  that  time  Jesus  went  on  the  Sabbath 
day  through  the  corn  ;  and  his  disciples  vi^tq  an  hungered,"  etc.,  Matt,  xii.,  1. 
This  form  of  expression  is  now  obsolete ;  the  proper  expression  is,  His  dis- 
ciples w«re  hungry. 

Exercises. 

The  Lerd  knoweth  the  way  of  the  righteous ;  but  the  way  of  the  ungodly 
shall  perish.  Render  unto  Caesar  the  things  that  are  Caesar's,  and  unto 
God  the  things  that  be  God's.  Thy  rod  and  thy  staflF  they  shall  comfort 
me.  When  the  unclean  spirit  has  gone  out  of  a  man,  he  walketh  through 
dry  places,  seeking  rest.  Let  us  go  to  now,  and  build  us  a  city.  Let  him 
that  thinketh  he  standetb,  take  heed  lest  he  fall. 

And,  if  ye  will  receive  it,  this  is  Elias  which  was  for  to  come.  Then 
shall  the  kingdom  of  heaven  be  likened  unto  ten  virgins,  which  took  their 
lamps;  and  went  forth  to  meet  the  bridegroom. 

For  he  wist*  not.  what  to  say  ;  for  they  were  sore  afraid.  And  Abimelecfe 
said,  I  woj  not  who  has  done  this  thing.  Genesis,  xxi.,  26.  And  he  said 
unto  them,  Draw  out  now  and  bear  unto  the  governor  of  the  feast,  and 
they  bare  it.  John  ii.,  8.  And  they,  fearing  lest  they  should  fall  into  the 
quicksandSyi  strake  sail,  and  so  were  driven,  Acts,  xxvii.,  lY.  And  Uzzah 
and  Ahio,  the  sons  of  Abinadab,  drav.e  the  new  cart.  2  Samuel,  vi.,  3. 
For  all  flesh  had  corrupted  his  way  upon  the  earth.  Genesis  vi.,  12.  From 
that  time  forth  began  Jesus  to  show  unto  his  disciples  how  that  he  must 
go  unto  Jerusalem.  Matthew  xvi,,  21.  By  the  which  will,  we  are  sanctified 
through  the  ofiering  of  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ  once  for  all.  Hebrews  x., 
10.  And  his  sister  stood  afar  off,  to  wit  what  would  be  done  with  him, 
Exodus,  xxi.,  4. 

•WiBt  not,— Kjww  kot. 


OONST&m^XIVB   QRAMMAB.  19t> 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 

SYNTAX. 

§  1.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

A  sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  affirms  a  fact. 
No  sentence  or  proposition  can  exist  without  an  affirmation ; 
no  affirmation  can  be  made  without  a  subject  and  predicate  ; 
hence  the  subject  and  predicate  are  essential  to  the  existence 
of  a  sentence  or  proposition  ;  as,  "  God  is  eternal,"  When 
the  verb  of  a  sentence  is  transitive,  it  has  an  object,  either 
expressed  or  obviously  understood  ;  as',  "  Oassius  loved  Bru^ 
tus."     (See  Part  I.,  Chapter  1.) 

§  2.  The  rules  of  Syntax  are  based  upon  three  leading  prin- 
ciples, viz :  Government,  Concord  or  Agreement,  and  Po- 
sition :  » 

Gmernment  is  that  power  which  one  word  has  in  directing  the  Mode, 
Tense  or  Case»of  another  word. 

Comonl  is  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  another  in  gender,  person^ 
number  and  case. 

Position  means  the  place  which  a  word  occupies  in  a  sentence. 

In  the  English  language,  which  has  but  few  inflections,  the  meaning  of 
a  sentence  depends  much  on  the  position  of  the  words  which  it  contains. 

RULES  OF  SYJ^TAX  WITH  NOTES  AND  REMARKS. 

RULE  I. 

The  subject  of  the  verb'  must  be  in  the  nominative  case ;  as, 
"  John  writes." 

Note  1. — The  infinitive  mode,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole  sentenoe,  may  be 
the  subject  of  a  verb  ;  as,  To  see,  is  pleasant."  "  To  die  for  one's  country,  is  glo- 
rious."   *'  That  hot  cUmatea  shorten  hurrxm,  life,  is  reasonable  to  suppose." 

Note  2. — When  &  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  it  must  take  the  subjeotiva 
form ;  ns,  /,  thou,  he,  sh<'-,  we,  they,  etc. 

Rem. — It  is  the  subject  of  the ^ntie  verb,  which  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  ; 
f»r  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  may  be  in  the  objective;  as,  <•  When  the  noble  Caasar 
saw  Am  stab,"  that  is,  t»  stab. 

RULE  IL 

A  noun  or  pronoun  predicated  of  the  subject,  must  be  in  the 
nominative  case;  as,  "  Law  is  a  rule  of  action."  "  Thou  art 
he."     "  It  is  J." 

Rem.  1.— The  reason  of  this  rule  is  obvious :  for  the  predicate  nominative  must  b« 
the  snvie  person  or  thin;^  as  the  Rubject— the  nature  of  the  construction  precluding 
•  the  poi^sibility  of  its  being  the  object  of  a  verb  or  preposition  ;  hence  the  necessity 
of  its  being  in  the  nominative  case., 

Rem.  2.— There  is  no  error  more  coramoo  among  the  populace  than  that  of  pro4- 
Icating  an  objective  case  of  the  subject ;  such  as,  "  I  thought  it  was  hitH,  but  it  wal 


136  •  ANALTTBCiLL,   ILLUiTRATlTB      AlfD 

not  him.^'  Some  authors  have  been  so  far  carried  away  by  this  erroneous  practice, 
that  they  have  admitted  it  into  their  systems  as  a  principle  of  grammar.  ThiS) 
however,  should  not  bo  referred  to  with  any  favoring  notice. 

RULE  III. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify  another  noun  or  pronoun, 
is  put  bj  apposition  in  the  same  case  ;  as,  "  Cicero,  the  orator.'* 
"  Solomon^  the  son  of  David,  wrote  many  proverbs," 

BxM. — Explanation  and  emphasis  constitute  the  proper  limits  of  apposition — be- 
yond these,  the  annexed  nouns  or  pronouas  become  pleonasms  which  should  not  be 
tolerated.  In  the  example  alrlady  given,  the  identifying  nouns  are  used  for  expla- 
nation; but  in  the  following  th«  noun  is  merely  repeated  for  emphasis  f  as,  "  Can 
man,  weak  man,  thy  power  defeat."    (See  Apendix,  Art.  Appo.) 

RULE  IV. 
« 

The  possessive  case,  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits  J 
as,  "  John's  book."  "  His  being  away  from  home,  was  a^great 
disappointment."  ' 

Rem.  1. — The  possessive  case  is  not  unfrequently  governed  by  a  phrase,  as  in 
Example  2.     (For  the  formation  of  the  possessive  case,  see  Appendix,  Art.  Case.) 

Rem.  2. — Nothing  except  some  n#cessary  modifying  words,  should  ever  be  con- 
Btmed  between  the  possessive  case  and  the  word  or  phrase  which  it  limits  ;  as,  "  She 
extolled   the /t/rmer's,  as  she  called  him,  cxce/Ze«t  understanding." 

Rbm.  3.— No  pronoun  should  tver  have  the  possessive  sign,  but  one,  another  and 
ether,  being  used  in  the  sense  of  nouns ;  consequently  adm^  of  the  sign. 

RULE   V. 

The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits  ; 
as,  "They  wenf  to  «ee  him."  "She  is  eager  to  learn."  "I 
heard  him  my  it.     "  He  is  learning  to  read.'' 

Rem. — The  infinitive  mode  is  sometimes  saidto  be  absolute;  as,  "  To  confess  the 
truth,  I  was  ia  fault."    (See  Peculiar  Constructions,  Example  22.) 

|BULE  VL 

The  verb  niust  agree  with  its  nominative  in  number  and  per- 
son ;  as,  "Thou  seest"  "He  sees."  "I  see:'  "We  see." 
"  Thou  madest  him  a  little  lower  than  the  angels,  and  crownedst 
him  with  glory  and  honor." 

Note  1. — Such  nouns  as  have  a  singular  form,  but  are  obviously  plural  in  sense, 
take  a  plural  verb  ;  as,  "  A  hundred  head  of  cattle  were  grizing  on  the  side  of  the 
mountain." 

Note  2. — When  a  verb  is  construed  between  two  nominatives  of  diflFerent  num- 
bers, it  should  agree  with  that  which  is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  the  affirma- 
tion ;  as,  "  His  vieat  was  locusts  and  wild  honey." 

Rem. — For  the  personal  terminations*  which  the  verb  must  assume  in  different 
atyles,  and  to  agree  with  nominatives  of  different  persoDB  and  numbers,  see  Num- 
ber and  Person  of  the  v^I». 


CONSTRCCTIVS    QRAMMAK..  137 

RULE  VII. 

Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular,  connected  by  and, 
must  have  verbs  agreeing  with  them  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Cato 
and  Plato  were  wise." 

Note  1. — When  tho  constrnction  ie  such  as  to  prevent  the  verb  from  affirming 
CODJoiptly  of  the  nominatives,  it  takes  tho  singular  form  ;  as,  "  Truth,  and  not  false- 
hood, is  destined  to  prevail."  In  this  example,  falsehood  is  nominative  to  a  verb 
understood. 

Note  2. — When  the  nominativps,  connected  by  and,  denote  the  same  person  or 
thing,  tho  verb  should  be  singular ;  &s,  "The  saint,  the  husband,  and  the  father 
pray^"  "  Why  i»  dust  and  ashes  proud?  As  these  nominatives  denote  but  one 
person, \here  can  be  but  one  act  performed  at  the  same  time';  hence  the  reason  of 
the  note.  Tho  last  example  is  supposed  to  be  equivalent  to,  "  Why  is  a  human  being 
■proud?"    That  is,  a  being  made  of  dust  and  ashes. 

Note  3. — The  adjunct  which  may  limit  tho  nominative,  should  have  no  effect  upon 
the  verb;  as.  "  The  side  A,  toith  the  side  B  and  C,  composes  the  triangle."  "The 
ship  with  all  the  crew,  wi-s  lost." 

Rkm. — Some  writers  use  aplural  verb  in  such  constructions.  This  practice,  how- 
ever, in  our  judgment,  should  not  be  imitated  ;  since  it  is  neither  supported  by  an- 
^ogy  nor  good  usage  gener.-illy. 

Note  4. — When  nominates  of  (fj^ez-enf  numbers  are  connected  hy  and,  it  would 
be  better  to  plaoo  the  plural  next  to  the  verb ;  as,  "  The  sun,  moon,  and  stars  admon- 
ish UR  of  a  superior  and  superintending  power.  » 

Kkm. — AVhen  and  connects  nominatives  of  different  persons,  cotirtesy  generally 
requires  that  thofrst  person  should  be  placed  last  in  construction  ;  as,  "  You  and  / 
did  that  work."  The  verb  is  said,  in  such  Cfisos,  to  agree  with  the^rs?person  rather 
than  the  second,  and  with  the  second  rather  thuu  tho  third, 

Note  5. —  When  nominatives,  connected  by  apd,  are  limited  by  such  specifying  ad- 
jectives as  each,  every,  tho  verb  takes  the  singular  form;  as,  "  Every  man,  woman, 
and  child,  was  numbered." 

RULE   VIL 

Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular,  connected  by  or 
or  nor,  must  have  verbs  agreeing  with  them  in  the  singular;  as, 
"  John  or  James  was  ill." 

Rem.  1. — In  this  example,  John  and  James  are  taken  separately,  and  while  tho 
predicate  teas  ill  may  be  affirmed  of  either,  it  can  not  be  athrmod  of  both  conjoint- 
ly; hence  tho  reason  of  the  rule. 

Hem.  2. — Some  suppose  that  in  some  instances  when  the  affirmation  is  negative, 
the  verb  may  bo  plural;  as,  "  Neither  Moses,  Lycurgus,  nor  Solon,  were  eminent  as 
orators." 

Note  1. — When  nominatives  of  different  numbers  aro  connected  by  or  or  nor  the 
plural  nominative  should  bo  construed  next  to  tho  verb,  with  which  the  verb  should 
agree  ;  as,  "  Neither  moon  nor  stiirs  appear." 

Note  2. —  When  or  or  nor  connects  nominatives  of  different  persons,  the  verb 
,  should  agree  with  tae  one  placed  next  to  it ;  as,  "  Thou  or  I  am  to  blame." 

Kem. —  As  each  nominative,  in  such  constructions,  belongs  to  a  verb,  it  is  thought 
to  be  better  to  use  some  other  form  of  construction  ;  as.  Either  thou  art  to  blame,  or 
I  am ;  or  thus.  Blame  rests  upon  mo  or  ihec. 

RULE   IX. 

When  a  verb  agrees  with  the  infinitive  mode  or  part  of  a 
sentence  for  its  subject,  it  must  be  in  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar ;  as,  "  To  die  for  one's  country,  is  glorious."  "  To  seek 
God  is  wisdom." 


138  AITALTriOAl,   liXUOTRATITB    AifD 

Rem — It  is  obvious  that  the  infinitive  mode  or  part  of  a  sentence,  used  as  th» 
subject  of  afBrniation,  can  not  represent  the  speaker,  nor  can  it  be  the  subject  of 
address  ;  honce  it  is  nccessarilj-  limited  to  the  third  person;  again,  as  such  a  phrase 
or  part  of  a  sentence  can  represent  but  a  sinyle  idea,  phirality  is  excluded,  and  the 
verb  agreeing  with  such  a  phrase  must  be  in  the  singular  j  hence  the  reason  of  the 
rule.  V 

Note. — If  two  guch  phrases  are  connected  by  and,  each  representing  a  different 
idea,  the  verb  must  be  plural;  as,  "  To  eat  and  to  play  coastitute  the  chief  employ- 
ment of  some." 

RULE  X. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  unity,  generally  has  a 
verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the  singular  ;  as,  "  That 
nation  was  once  powerful ;  but  low  it  is  feeble." 

Rem. — A  collective  noun  conveys  idea  of  unity  when  th«  individuals  of  which  it 
is  criiuposed  are  represented  as  acting  in  one  way,  so  that  whatt^ver  is  affirmed  of  the 
■whole  may,  with  equal  propriety,  be  aCrmed  of  each  individual;  as,  "  The  commit- 
tee was  unanimous  in  its  sentiments."  Here  perfect  harmony  of  sentiment  prevails, 
and  the  mind  contemplates  committee  as  one  entire  whole ;  but,  if  we  say,  The  com- 
'  mittee  were  divided  in  their  sentiments,  this  harmony  of  action  ceases,  and  the 
mind  no  longer  contemplates  committee  as  a  unity,  but  ns  a  plurality  ;  since  the  in- 
dividuals are  represented  as  being  divided,  and  acting  in  different  ways.  This  idea 
of  plurality  constitutes  the  basis  of  Rule  XI. 

RULE   XI. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plurality,  generally  has 
a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  The  committee  wei'© 
divided  in  their  sentiments." 

Rev. — The  practice  of  writers,  with  regard  to  theie  rales,  is  not  uniform. 

RULE  xn. 

Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gender,  number, 
and  person  ;  as,  "  John  lost  his  knife,"  "  He  who  studies,  will 
improve." 

Note  1. — When  the  relative  relates  to  antecedents  of  different  persons,  it  may 
agreeo  with  either;  but  when  the  agreement  has  been  dc-tprmined,  it  must  be  con- 
tinued throughout  the  sentence;  as,  "Thou  art  the  Lord,  loAo  c/it/st  choose  Abraham, 
and  didst  bring  him  forth  out  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees." 

Note  2. — When  a  pronoun  relates  to  two  or  more  antecedents  in  the  singular, 
connected  by  and,  it  must  be  in  the  plural;  but,  if  its  antecedents  are  connected  by 
or  or  nor,  it  must  be  in  the  singular. 

Hem.  i. — In  most  cases  when  a  relative  is  preceded  by  two  antecedents  of  differ- 
ent persons,  the  construction  may  be  advantageously  altere«l ;  as,  ''  I  am  the  man 
who  commands  you  " — better  thus,  I  who  command  you,  am  the  man.  [For  con^ 
Btruetion  of  the  relative,  see  Construction  of  Elements.) 

Rem.  2. — When  the  relative  refers  to  antecedents  of  different  persons  connected 
'  by  a  conjunction,  it  must  agree  in  person  with  \h&  first  rather  than  the  second,  and 
with  the  secowl  rather  than  the  third. 

Rem.  3. — Pronouns  which  are  applicable  to  persons  may  be  applied  to  lower  ant' 
mats,  and  even  to  inanimate  objects,  when  the  SittTihuXes  of  rational  creatures  are  at- 
tributed to  them  ;  as,  "  The  lion  said  to  the  ass  who  had  been  hunting  with  /m;j." 
"  Night,  sablo  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne  descends." 

Rem.  4. — The  relative  tcAicA  should  be  used  instead  of  who,  after  the  names  of 
persons,  when  the  e/iaraeter,  and  not  the  person,  la  referred  to  ;  as,  "  Herod,  which 


c05fr6TRacnTB  (jrammab.  139 

'[word]  is  Ruothot  name  for  cruelty."    "S.d  h   a  £ood   writer,  which  is  uU  he  pro- 
lessM  to  be. 

RULE  XIII. 

The  indefinite  article  belongs  to  nouns  in  the  singular  num- 
ber; as,  "  A  man.     An  hour." 

RULE  XIV. 

The  definite  article  belongs  to  nouns  of  both*  numbers ;  as, 
■^' The  mun.     The  men." 

Rem. — Though  (he  is  called  the  definite  article,  it  is  not  always  competent  of  it- 
self to  point  out  tbo  noun  to  which  it  belongs  definitely.  If  I  siiy,  "  The  man  has 
tjo  rae,"  man  is  not  pointed  out  as  a  definite  object  to  the  luind  of  the  hearer,  unless 
he  had  been  the  subject  of  a  previous  discourse.  "  TAe  .5Zar  appctrs."  What  si'ar? 
The  particular  star  about  which  wo  have  been  discoursing.  As  this  article  does 
not  limit  nouns  in  respect  to  number,  and  is  incapable  of  pointin,;;  out  a  Koun 
definitely  of  itself,  Mr.  Cardoll  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  the  most  indefinite 
of  all  the  defining  adjectives. 

Note  1. — When  several  nouns  aro  connected  in  A  regular  construction,  it  is  not 
Rlways  necessary  to  repeat  the  articla  before  oaoh;  as,  "  The  men,  wo.nea,  and  chil- 
dren suffered  extremely." 

Note  2. — But  when  nouns  are  joined  in  construction,  without  a  close  connectiou, 
and  common  dependence,  the  article  must  bo  repeated.  The  following  sentence  is 
inaccurate  :  "  She  never  considered  the  quality  but  merit  of  her  visitors." 

Note  3. — When  two  or  more  adjectives  are  assumed  of  the  soma  noun,  tho  article 
should  not  be  repeated  ;  as,  "  I  saw  a  white  and  black  calf."  But,  if  the  ndjectivos 
are  assumed  of  dif event  nouns,  the  article  should  be  repeated;  as,  "  I  saw  a  white 
■nd-r.  black  calf."  In  tbo  last  example,  I  obviously  saw  two  calves,  the  one  ichite, 
and  the  other  black-  But,  in  the  first  example,  I  saw  but  one  calf,  baving'Jwo  col- 
crs,  white  and  black.    (See  OonstVuction  of  Article  and  Constructioa  of  Elements.) 

RUXE  XV. 

Adjectives  belong  to  neuns  and  pronouns;;  ae,  "A  good  man/' 
*'  She  is  handsome."   ' 

Note  I. — Su^h  i-pecifying  adjectives  as  are  varied  to  express  number,  most  agree 
in  number  with  tho  roims  to  which  they  belo  g  ;  &r    This.  that,  these  ■'•ni  those. 

Note  2. —  This  anii  thiit,  these  and  tho<^e  are  antithetical  in  their  mea  ing  and  ap- 
plicarion  ;  </;is  and  these  refer  to  the  nearest  persons  or  things,  or  ioiJi  lueutioaed; 
■akaA.'ikat  and  thusc  to  the  more  distant,  or  first  mentioned ;  as, 

"  Farewell,  my  friends  !  farewell,  my  foes  ! 
My  peace  with  these,  my  love  with  those .'" 

Note  3.— Specifying  adjectives  of  the  numerical  kind,  require  noins  to  agree  in 
number;  as,  "  0«^7H(7fj."     "Ten  men."     "  Forty  women-" 

Rem.— A  few  nouns  which  have  a  singular  form,  but  a  plural  sense.'aro  authorized 
exceptions  to  this  note;  as,  "A  hundred  head  of  cattle."  "Twenty  sail  of  the 
line,"  etc. 

Note  4.— When  two  numerals  precede  a  Noun,  one  singular  and  the  other  plural, 
the  plural  should  be  placed  next  to  the  Noun  ;  as,  "The first  two  books." 

Rem. — This  note  is  not  important,  since  tho  practice  of  good  writers  is  nit 
unifcrm./ 

Note  5.— Double  comparatives  aad  superlatives  should  not  bo  used;  nn,  "  Mors 
better-"    "Most  ex'reniesi." 
^    Note  6.— When  two  objects  are  compared,  tho  comparative  degree  .shou  dbe  used,- 

♦Thia  rule  is  not  important,  since  there  is  nopoeeibility  of  violating  it. 


140  ANALTTICAL,  ILtUSTRATITB    AND 

and  Tf  hen  three  or  more,  the  superlative;  as,  "Mary  is   taller  than  her  sister."" 
"  That  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  forest." 

Rem.  1. — When  the  comparative  is  used,  the  two  objects,  or  classes  of  objects, 
compared,  are  represented  as  distinct  from  each  other;  as,  "  Wisdom  is  better  than 
gold." 

Rem.  2. — When  the  superlative  degree  is  used,  the  objects  compared  are  repre- 
sented as  belonging  to  the  same  class  ;  if  several  classes  are  compared,  they  are  rep-, 
resented  as  included  in  some  larger  class;  as,  "Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  the  He- 
brew kings."  But,  if  we  say  SolomiVn  was  wiser  than  ihe  Hebrew  kings,  it  would 
exclude  \xim  from  ihzl  class- of  kings;  consequently  the  expression  is  incorreet. 
(See  Butler's  Grammar.) 

Rem.  3. — Though*  the:  comparative  degree  is  generally  used  in  comparing  two 
objects  or  classes  of  objects,  yet  the  superlative  is  sometimes  us«d  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Note  7. —  This  here  and  that  there  are  useless  pleonasms,  and  should  be  carefully 
arolded  by  all  who  would  cultivate  good  taste — to  say  nothing  of  grammar  rules. 

NoTK  8. — When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of,  either  or  neither  should  be 
used  ;  but,  when  we  speak  of  more  than  two,  any  or  none  should  be  employed. 

Note  9. —  When  an  adjective  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  an  attribute  and  a  namOi 
it  is  generally  plarci;  as,  "  The  good  ar«  rewarded;  but  the  bad  are  punished." 

RULE  XVI. 

Adjectives  sometimos  belong  t©  the  infinitive  mode,  part  of  a 
sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence;  as,  '■^  To  see  ii pleasant." 
"  Agreeable  to-  this,  we  read  of  names  being  blotted  out  of  God' 9 
hoohr 

Quality  may  bt  predicated  of  action ;  hence 

RULE  XVIL 

Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  action  of  verbs,  and  to. 
express  the  qualities  of  things  in  connection  with  the  action 
by  which  they  are  produced;  as,  "Open  thine  hand  wide."' 
"  The  eggs  boil  hard."     "  The  trees  look  green." 

Rbjic. It  is  not  always  easy  for  the  learner  to   determine   whether  the  modifying 

werd  is  an   adjective  or   an   adverb.    The    following   directions   may  be  of  some, 

1.  If  the  qualifying  word  can  be  changed  to  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second 
kjnd,  it  is  an  a^erb.  if  not,  it  is  an  adjective;  as,  "  The  trees  look  green."  We  can 
not  say  that  trees  look  in  a  green  manner  ;  for  that  would  represent  the  trees  as  pos-. 
sessing  the  pawer  if  look  in  a  particular  way.  Again,  •'  She  walks  graceful."  Wo 
can  say  she  walks  in  a  graceful  manner  ;  hence  graceful  is  an  adverb,  and  should  be 

gracefully.  ,...,.  ,.      ,      j  •  v     *•       i,       i, 

2.  The  qualifying  word  is  an  adjectivf  if  it  can  be  placed  in  predication  by  sub- 
stituting the  verb  to  be  for  the  verb  employed  ;  as,  "  The  rose  smells  sweet,"  i.  e. 
the  rose  is  sweet.     "  He  landed  safe,"  i.  e.,  he  was  safe  when  he  landed. 

RULE  XVIIL 

Participles  refer  to  nouns  or  pronouns  ;  as,  "I  see  him  walhr 
ing."     "  Mary  having  written  the  letter,  mailed  it." 

RULE  XIX. 

The  objeot  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  is  put  in 
the  objective,  case ;  as,  "  I.  saw  him  whom  you  met." 


CONSTRUCTIVI    GRAMMAR.  .  141 

Rem.  I. — As  the  nominative  of  the  Transitive  verb  in  the  Passive  voico,  is  the  ob« 
ject  of  the  verb's  action,  it  can  have  no  other ;  but  a  Passive  verb  (or  a  verb  in  the 
Passive  voice)  frequently  admits  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  predication  ;  as,  "Wash- 
ington was  chosen  commander-in-chief.'"  "  Harrison  was  elootod  President."  "  He 
was  called  John." 

Rem.  2. — The  Infinitive  mode,  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence,  ia  not  un- 
frequontly  the  object  of  a  Transitive  verb;  as,  "Boys  love  to  play. ^'  "Jesus  said, 
a  certain  man.  planted  a  vineyard.'" 

Rem.  3. — In  order  to  prevent  ambiguity,  when  a  noun,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  is 
the  object  of  the  verb,  it  should  be  placed  after  the  verb  ;  but  a  pronoun  may  be 
construed  before  it;  as,  "Him  that  is  weak  in  the  faith,  receive  ye." 

Rbw.  4. —  When  the  object  of  a  Transitive  verb  in  the  Active  voice  is  obvious,  it 
is  frequently  omitted  ;  as,  "He  ^'eads."     "They  write,''  etc. 

Rem.  5. — When  a  Transitive  verb  in  the  Active  voice  takes  a.  personal  and  verbal 
object,  in  changing  it  to  the  Passive  voice,  the  personal,  or  indirect  object  is  fre- 
quently, but  erroneously,  made  ihe  nominative  ;  as,  "  They  asked  him  a  question." 
Changed — "  i/e  was  asKed  a  question  by  them.''  It  should  }3a,  "  A  question  was 
asked  him  by  them."    (See  Peculiar  Constructions,  Remark  1.) 

RULE   XX. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  participle  must  be  in  the  objective 
case  ;  as,  "  I  saw  a  man  beating  his  horse." 

Rem.  1.— The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  [compound]  can  only  govern  an  objective 
case. 

Rem.  2. — Participles  which  have  a  Passive  signification,  do  not  govern  an  ob- 
jective case;  such  as,  Being  informed.    Having  been  informed. 

RULE   XXL 

The  object  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 
"  Henry  went  with  me." 

Rem.  1. — The  governing  preposition  is  not  unfrequently  understood;  as,  "He 
gave  (to)  me  a  book." 

Rem.  2. — A  participle  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  sometimes  the  object  of  a  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  "  He  mair^ins  his  family  by  writing."  "  The  king  gave  me  a  generous 
reward  for  comjiiitting  that  barbarous  act-" 

RULE  XXIL 

Conjunctions  connect  words  of  the  same  sort :  as,  "  John 
and  James."  "  Grood  and  bad."  "  Q-racefully  and  rapidly^" 
etc. 

Rem.  1. — By  words  of  tke  same  sort,  is  meant  such  words  as  belong  to  the  same 
parts  of  speech. 

Rem.  2. — This  rule  should  not  be  applied  in  parsing  conjunctions  which  connect 
sentences,  nor  is  it  absolutely  necessary  that  it  should  be  applied  at  all. 

RULE  XXIH. 

Conjunction^conncct  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  same  case : 
as,  ''^ Henry  and  William  obey  their  teacher."  "  They  assist- 
ed him  and  me"     "  David's  and  Jonathan's  friendship." 


IR 


142  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE,  AND 

RULE  XXIV. 

Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs  of  like  modes  and 
tenses  ;  as,  "  Kingdoms  rise  and  fall." 

Note  1. — When  a  conjunction  connects  verbs  of  different  modes  and  tenses,  the 
nominative  must  be  repeated ;  as,  "  The  attorney  executed  the  deed,  but  he  will 
write  no  more." 

Note  2. — Conjunctions  connect  verbs  of  the  same  form,  and  particles  of  the  same 
kind  ;  as,  "  Bid  he  not  tell  me  his  fault,  and  entreat  me  to  forgive  him  ?"  "  Being 
ridiculed  and  despised,  he  left  the  institution." 

Kem.  1. — Note  1  is  not  regarded  as  important :  since  standard  authors  frequently 
connect  verbs  ef   different  modes   and   tenses  without  repeating  the  nominative. 

RULE  XXV. 

Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  and  other  ad- 
verbs ;  as,  "He  writes  hadlyJ" 

Rem. — By  modification  is  meant  the  change  of  the  meaning  and  not  the  form  of 
the  word  modified. 

Note  1. — Two  negatives,  occurring  in  the  same  sentence,  render  it  affirmative  ;  as, 
"Nor  did  they  not  perceive  their  evil  plight" — ihey  did  perceive  their  evil  plight. 

Note  2.^-Two  negatives  are  often  elegantly  used  to  express  an  aflBrmation,  one 
being  the  prefix  of  a  derivative  word  ;  as,  "  Nor  was  he  wwsuccessful."  Unneces- 
sary regatives  should  be  avoided;  as,  "  I  don't  know  nothing  about  it."  It  should 
be,  "  I  know  nothing  about  it,"  or  "  I  do  not  know  anything  about  it." 

RULE  XXVL 

Euphony  requires  that  the  sign  to  of  the  infinitive  should  be 
omitted  when  construed  with  the  following  verbs,  viz.  :  hid^ 
dare,  feel,  make,  let,  hear,  see,  need,  and  their  participles ;  as, 
"  He  bid  me  come."  *'  We  felt  the  earth  tremble.^'  "  I  heard 
him  sjjeak,"  etc. 

Note. — When  these  verbs  are  used  in  the  Passive  Voice,  the  si^n  is  used  ;  as, 
"  He  was  often  heard  to  say." 

Rem.— There  is  something  so  peculiar  in  the  use  of  dare  and  need,  that  they  de- 
mand special  attention.  When  dare  is  transitive,  and  means  to  challenge,  it  admits 
of  regular  inflections,  and  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  ,•  as,  "  He  dares  not  to  enter  the 
list."  But  when  it  is  intransitive,  or  means  to  have  courage,  or  to  ventvre,  it 
admits  of  no  personal  termination,  and  rejects  the  sign  of  the  infinitive ;  as, 
^' 1  dare  engage."  "  1  dare  not  confess."  " '&Q  dare  s&y  ■"  "Durst  I  venture  to 
deliver  my  own  sentiments."  "He  dare  not  go  without  my  permission.''  "But, 
my  lord,  you  dare  not  do  either."  When  need  is  transitive,  it  is  regular  in  all  its 
inflections,  and  admits  of  the  sign  of  the  Infinitive;  as,  •'  He  needs  to  be  informed 
of  his  duty."  But,  when  it  is  intransitis'e,  it  admits  of  no  personal  termination, 
and  rejects  the  sign  of  the  Infinitive;  as,  "Nobody  need  be  afraid;  he  shall  not 
have  scope."  "  I  need  not  go  any  further."  There  is  one  more  peculiarity  of  need 
which  is  worthy  of  notice,  viz.,  its  being  used,  as  some  suppose,  without  a  nomina- 
tive either  expressed  or  implied  ;  as,  "  There  needs  no  prophet  to  tell  us."  "  Where- 
of here  needs  no  act."  It  would,  perhaps,  be  better,  in  such  constructions,  to  refer 
the  verb  to  the  indefinite  pronoun  it  as  its  s.ibject. 

RULE  xxvn. 

When  an  address  is  made,  the  name  of  the   person  or  thing 


CONSTRUCTIVE    ORAMMAR.  148 

addressed,  is   put  in   the  nominative   case   independent ;    as, 
"  Janieif  I  desire  you  to  study." 

Note. — A  Noun  may  be  in  the  nominative*  ease  independent,  1st.  By  direct  ad- 
dress; as,  "  Friends,  a.^Rke."  2.  By  tzclamation;  a,3,  "  Amaziiig  grace"  3.  By 
pleonasm ;  as,  "  The  soul  that  sinneth,  it  shall  die." 

Kem. — Pleonasms  are  only  admissible  when  great  force  and  perspicuity  are  re- 
quired. The  pleonasm  which  arises  from  the  use  of  the  pronoun  in  the  same  mem- 
ber with  the  noun  which  it  represents,  should  generally  be  rejected ;  as,  "  My  banks 
they  are  furnished  with  bees."    "  Riches  they  corrupt  the  mind." 

RULE  XXVIII. 

A  noun  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a  participle,  and  having  no 
verb  to  agree  with  it,  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  absolute  ;  as, 
"  The  sun  having  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey." 

Kem. — Two  things  are  necessary  to  cause  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  bo  in  the  case 
absolute,  viz.,  itsposiiion  before  a  participle,  and  its  independence  of  any  verb. 

RULE  XXIX. 

Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode  have  no  nominative  speci- 
fied; as,  "  God  said,  let  there  be  light,  and  there  was  light." 

RULE  XXX. 

Prepositions  point  out  the  relation  between  their  antecedent 
and  subsequent  terms  ;  as,  "  He  went  to  the  city  of  New  York.''' 

RULE  XXXL 
Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction. 

Rem. — The^last  three  rules  may  be  used  in  parsing,  or  th«y  may  be  omitted — 
just  as  it  ma;  suit  the  taste  of  teachers. 

RULES  OF   SYNTAX. 
,     RULE  L 

The  subject  of  the  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case ;  as, 
"  John  writes." 

RULE  II. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  predicated  of  the  subject,  must  be  in  the 
nominative  case;  as,    "  Law  is  a  rule  of  action." 

RULE  in. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  identify  another  noun  or  pronoun, 

*It  would  be  better,  perhape,  to  drop  the  word  nominative,  and  simply  say  "  The  casi 

IHDEPBWDENT." 


144  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

is  put  by  apposition   in  the   same  case ;  as,   "  Cicero,  the  or 
ator." 

RULE  IV. 

The  possessive  case,  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits ; 
as,  "  JbAw's  book."  ^''  His  being  away  from  home,  was  a  great 
disappointment. ' ' 

RULE  V. 

The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits  ; 
as,  "They  went  to   see  him." 

RULE  VL 

The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in  .number  and  per- 
son ;  as,  "Thou  seest."     "He  sees."     "We   see,"  etc, 

RULE  VIL 

Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular,  connected  by  and, 
must  have  verbs  agreeing  with  them  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Cato 
and  Pljito  were  wise." 

RULE  VIIL 

Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular,  connected  by  or 
or  nor,  must  have  verbs  agreeing  with  them  in  the  singular ;  as, 
"  John  or  James  was  ill." 

RULE  IX. 

When  a  verb  agrees  with  the  infinitive  mode  or  part  of  a 
sentence  for  its  subject,  it  must  be  in  the  third  person,  singu- 
lar ;  as,  "  To  die  for  one's  country,  is  glorious." 

RULE  X. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  unity,  generally  has  a 
verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the  singular ;  as,  "  That 
nation  wUs  once  powerful ;  but  now  it  is  feeble." 

RULE   XI. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plurality,  generally  has 
a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  The  committee  were 
divided  in  their  sentiments." 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  145 

RULE  Xfl. 

Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in  gender,  number, 
and  person  ;  as,  "  John  lost  hk  knife,"  "  He  who  studies,  will 
improve." 

RULE  XIIL 

The  indefinite  article  belongs  to  nouns  in  the  singular  num- 
ber ;  as,  "  A  man.     An  hour." 

RULE  XIV. 

The  definite  article  belongs  to  nouns  of  both  numbers ;  as, 
"  The  man.     The  men." 

RULE  XV. 

Adjectives  belong  to  nouns  and  pronouns;  as,  "  A  good  man." 
"  She  is  handsome.'' 

RULE  XVI. 

Adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  the  infinitive  mode,  part  of  a 
sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence;  as,  "  Tb  sec  is  pleasant.'' 
"  Agreeable  to  this,  we  read  of  names  being  blotted  out  of  Grod's 
book." 

Quality  may  be  predicated  of  action ;  hence 

RULE  XVII. 

Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  action  of  verbs,  and  to 
express  the  qualities  of  things  in  connection  with  the  action 
by  which  they  are  produced;  as,  "Open  thine  hand  wide." 
"  The  eggs  boil  hard."    -"  The  trees  look  green." 

RULE  XVIIL 

Participles  refer  to  nouns  or^ pronouns  ;  as,  "I  see  him  walk- 
ing." 

RULE  XIX. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  is  put  in 
the  objective  case  ;  as,  "  I  saw  him  whom  you  met." 

RULE  XX. 

The  objective  of  a  transitive  participle  is  put  in  the  objective 
case ;  as,  "I  saw  a  man  beating  his  horse." 


146  AKAIiTTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE      AND 

EtJLE  XXI. 

The  object  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the  objective  case  ;  as, 
"  Henry  went  with  me" 

RULE  XXII. 

Conjunctions  connect  words  of  the  same  sort ;  as,  "  John 
and  James-     Crood  and  had,"  etc. 

RULE  xxin. 

Conjunctions  connect  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  same  case  ; 
as,  "  Henry  and  William  obey  their  teacher." 

RULE  XXIV. 

Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs  of  like  modes  and 
tenses;  as,  "Kingdoms  rise  and  fall." 

RULE  XXV. 

Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  and  other  ad- 
verbs; as,  "  He  writes  badly." 

RULE  XXVI. 

Euphony  requires  that  the  sign  to  of  the  infinitive  should  be 
omitted  when  construed  with  the  following  verbs,  viz. :  bid,  dare, 
feel,  make,  let,  hear,  see,  need,  and  their  participles ;  as,  "  He 
bid  me  come."  "We  felt  the  earth  tremble."  "I  heard  him 
speak,"  etc. 

RULE  XXVII. 

When  an  address  is  made,  the  name  of  a  person  or  thing  ad- 
dressed, is  put  in  the  nominative  case  independent ;  as,  "  James, 
I  desire  you  to  study." 

RULE  XXVIII. 

A  noun  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a  participle,  and  having 
no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  nor  word  on  which  to  depend,  is  put 
in  the  nominative  ease  absolute  ;  as,  "  The  sun  having  risen, 
we  pursued  our  journey." 

RULE  XXIX. 

Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode  have  no  nominative  speci- 
fied; as,  "  God  said,  let  ther€  be  light,  and  there  was  light." 


OONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAa.  147 

RULE  XXX. 

Prepositions  point  out  the  relation  between  their  antecedent 
and  subsequent  terms ;  as,  "  Henry  went  to  the  city  of  New 
York:' 

RULE  XXXL 

Interjections  have  no  dependent  construction. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

FALSE    SYNTAX. 
To   BE  CORRECTED     BY  RuLE   L 

Model.  "  Them  that  seek  virtue  shall  surely  find  her."  Them,  in  this 
sentence,  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  shall  find  ;  but  it  has  the  ob- 
jective form  ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ; — it  should  be  in  the  nominative 
case   having  the  subjective  form  they,  according  to  Rule  1. 

Mim  and  I  went  T^ho  said  that?  3fe.  Them  told  it.  You  and  vs  en- 
joy many  privileges.  I  thought  you  and  them  had  become  friends.  Them 
that  sow  in  tears,  shall  reap  in  joy.  Rer  that  was  wise  and  prudent,  nev- 
er complains  of  adversity.  Whom  struck  John  ?  Him.  Him  that  studies 
attentively,  will  improve  very  fast. 

Br  Rule  IL 

Model.  *'  Wh9m  say  ye  that  I  am  ?"  Whorn^  in  this  sentence,  is  predi- 
cated of  the  subject  /;  but  it  has  the  objective  form  ;  it  is,  therefore,  incor- 
rect ; — it  should  be  in  the  nominatire  case,  assuming  the  subjective  form 
who,  according:  to  Rule  2.  The  sentence  construed  affirmatively  would 
read  thus,  Mtii  do,  say  that  I  am  who. 

John  was  kim.  It  was  them.  I  thought  it  was  him.  That  lady  is  not 
her.  It  was  not  me.  Mary  was  not  her.  It  was  him.  They  knew  it  was 
rm.  They  are  them  that  testified  of  me.  I  thought  it  was  them,  though 
it  seems  that  it  was  him.  I  believe  it  was  him  who  informed  me,  though 
It  may  have  been  her ;  for  I  am  nnt  certain  whether  it  was  him  or  her.  Is 
it  him  whom  ye  see  coming  ?  Who  tore  this  book  ?  Him.  Are  you  cer- 
tain that  it  was  him  ?  It  might  have  been  her,  though  I  believe  it  was 
him.     Be  not  afraid ;  it  is  me. 

By  Rule  IIL 

Model.  "  It  was  Titus,  the  son  of  Vespasian,  him  who  took  Jerusalem." 
Him,  in  this  sentence,  is  in  the  objertive  case,  or  has  the  objective  form 
whereas  it  identifies  Titus  in  the  nominative;  it  is  therefore,  incorrect  and 
should  be  he  in  the  nominative,  to  agree  in  case  with  Titus,  accordinc  to 
Rule  3. 

He  took  it  to  be  /.  I  knew  that  man  to  be  lie.  We  adore  the  Divine 
Being,  He  who  sustains  all  things.     I  saw  Martha  and  her  sister,  they  that 


148  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

you  visited.  It  was  John  the  Baptist,  Tiim  who  preached  repentance.  I 
have  read  a  letter  from  my  cousin,  she  that  was  here  last  winter.  The 
book  is  a  present  from  my  brother  Richard,  he  who  keeps  the  book  store. 
I  am  going  to  see  my  friends  in  the  country,  they  that  we  met  at  the  ferry. 

By  Rule  IV. 

Model.  '■'■Jonathans  love  for  David  was  very  strong."  In  this  sentence, 
Jonathans  limits  love  by  denoting  possession  ;  but  is  not  in  the  possessive 
case,  or  has  not  the  possessive  sign  ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  an  ai^ostro- 
fhe  should  be  inserted  between  n  and  s,  or  the  possessive  sign  applied,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  IV. 

Peters  dog  bit  Johns  finger.  Those  l)oys  books  are  cleaner  than  that 
girls  book.  His  mnjestys  dying  without  issue.  They  suffer  for  conscience 
sake.  She  has  a  princes  feather.  The  authors  being  scarce  of  friends  de- 
layed  tlfe  publication  of  the  work. 

By  Rule  VL 

Model  1.  "  I  walketh  into  the  country."  In  this  sentence,  the  verb  loallc- 
eth  has  the  termination  of  the  third i^erson,  singular,  solemn  style ;  where- 
as it  has  a  nominative  of  ih^  first  person^  singular,  which  clears  the  verb 
of  all  verbal  or  personal  terminations ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  it  should 
be  walk^  to  agree  in  person  with  the  nominative  /,  according  to  Rule  VI. 

Model  2.  "  The  teachers  who  instructs  me,  labors  faithfully."  Instructs 
has  the  termination  of  the  third  person,  singular^  familiar  style  ;  whereas 
it  has  a  nominative  of  ih&  plural^  which  clears  the  verb  of  personal  termi- 
nations ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  it  should  be  instruct  in  the  plural,  to 
agree  with  its  nominative  who,  according  to  Rule  VI. 

Model  3.  "  The  lady  who  occupies  this  house,  le^tow  many  charities." 
In  this  example,  lestotc  has  the  plural  form,  whereas  it  has  a  nominative 
of  the  third  2)erson,  singular,  which  requires  the  verb,  in  familiar  style,  to 
assume  s  or  es  ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect  ;  it  should  be  bestows  to  agree  in 
person  and  number  with  its  nominative,  lady,  according  to  Rule  VI. 

I  goeth.  He  art  gone.  I  goes.  I  loveth.  Thou  loves.  Thou  write. 
A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye.  Disappointments  sinlcs  the 
heart  of  man,  but  the  renewal  of  hope  give  consolation.  The  frequent 
commission  of  sin  harden  men  in  it.  I  just  shuts  my  eye  and  goes  it.  He 
that  trust  in  the  Lord,  will  never  be  without  a  friend.  The  man  and  wo- 
man that  was  present,  being  strangers  to  him,  wondered  at  his  conduct. 
The  wicked  fieeth  when  no  man  pursue.  The  Lord  loves  the  gates  of  Zion 
more  than  all  the  cities  of  Judah. 

Come  away  from  the  skies,  my  beloved  arise, 
And  rejoice  in  the  day  thou  wel'e  born. 

The  variety  of  the  productions  of  genius,  like  that  of  the  operations  of  na- 
ture, are  without  limit. 

Alas  !  the  joys  that  fortune  bring. 

Are  trifling  and  decays ; 
And  those  who  minds  the  paltry  things, 

More  trifling  still  than  they. 


0ON8TEU0TIVB   OBAMMAR.  149 

By  Rcls  VII. 

Model.  "Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man."  The  verb  waits,  in  this  sen- 
tence has  the  form  of  the  third  person  singular,  whereat  it  has  two  nomi- 
natives connected  by  and;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect;  it  should  be  vatt  in 
the  plural,  to  agree  with  its  Bominatiro  tirm  and  tide,  connected  by  and, 
according  to  Rule  VII. 

John  and  James  has  returned.  Ignorance  and  bigotry  Jia$  Mtued  this 
cruelty.  Jane  and  Eliza  is  at  home.  There  it  great  force  and  beauty  in 
her  style.  America  and  Europe  is  three  thousand  miles  distant  from  each 
other.  Gold  and  tin  is  both  useful  metals.  Judges  and  senates  have  been 
bought  for  gold.  Esteem  and  love  was  never  to  be  sold.  Industry  and 
frugality  leads  to  wealth.  Our  conversation  and  intercourse  with  the  world 
is,  in  several  respects,  an  education  for  vice.  My  flesh  and  my  heart  fail- 
eth.    Their  envy,  their  love,  and  their  hatred,  is  now  perished. 

By  Note  3. 

Humility,  with  poor  apparel,  excel  pride  and  vanity  under  Costly  appa- 
rel. The  king,  with  the  two  houses  of  Parliament,  constitute  an  excellent 
form  of  government.  The  Central  America,  with  her  excellent  captain 
and  a  largo  number  of  her  crew  and  passengers,  were  lost. 

By  N»te  5. 

F.very  man  and  every  beast  that  were  left  in  the  field,  were  destroyed 
by  the  hail.  Every  twig  and  every  drop  of  water,  teem  with  life.  Every 
day  and  every  hour  were  employed  in  strengthening  the  fortification. 

Bt  Rule  VIII. 

Mcdel.  "  Either  wisdom  or  folly  govern  our  conduct"  The  verb  gotetn 
has  the  plural  form  ;  whereas  its  two  nominatives  in  the  singular  are  con- 
nected  by  either  or  ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  it  should  be  governs,  in  the 
singular,  to  agree  with  its  two  nominatives,  connected  by  or,  according  to 
Rule  VII. 

John  or  Thomas  Mve  done  this  mischief.  Envy  or  jealousy  tBere  the 
cause  of  his  misery.  Extreme  heat  or  cold  are  painful.  It  is  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  poor  man  or  miser  most  deserve  pity.  Neither  im- 
pudence, credulity,  nor  vanity,  have  ever  been  imputed  to  him.  What  the 
heart  or  the  imagination  dictate,  flows  readily.  Neither  authority  nor 
analogy  support  such  an  opinion.  The  sense  or  drift  of  a  proposition,  often 
depend  upon  a  single  letter. 

Bt  Notb  1. 

Neither  riches  nor  poverty  was  able  to  move  him  from  from  his  stead- 
fastness. Neither  moon  nor  stars  was  seen  for  many  days.  Neither  th# 
hopes  of  reward  nor  the  fear  of  punishment,  was  strong  enough  to  induce 
him  to  give  up  his  evil  habits. 

Bt  Notb  2. 

Neither  thou  nor  I  art  nufflcienk  for  these  things.     Neither  yon  nor  ho 

were  prc!»ent.     Either  I  or  he  am  mistaken.     Neither  he  nor  thou  was  to 
blame. 

17 


150  AWALTTJOAX,    rUL06TRA,TIVB  "'AWD  ; 

Bt  Rclb  IX. 

Model.  "To  be  good,  are  to  be  bappy."  "  Jr«,  in  this  example,  has  a 
plural  form  ;  whereas  it  has  a  part  of  a  sentence  for  its  subject ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, incorrect ;  it^hould  be  is  in  the  singular,  to  agree  with  the  part  of  a 
sentence  to  he  good,  according  to  Rule  IX. 

To  publish  slanderous  words  are  wrong  and  wick«d.  Professing  regard 
and  acting  differently,  discover  a  base  raind.  To  die  for  one's  country  are 
glorious.  To  seek  happiness  by  violating  the  rights  of  another,  are  unjust. 
To  be  blind  are  unfortunate.  That  the  earth  revolves  on  its  own  axis,  are 
generally  admitted.  That  the  planets  are  inhabited  by  intelligent  creatures, 
are  reasonable  to  suppose. 

Note  under  Rule  IX. 

To  do  good  to  them  that  hate  us,  and,  on  no  occasion,  to  seek  revenge, 
is  the  duty  of  a  Christian.  To  do  justly,  to  love  mercy,  and  to  walk  hum- 
bly, is  required  of  all  men. 

Br  Rule  X. 

Model.  "  The  herd  were  seen  grazing."  The  verb  irer-e  seen  has  a  col- 
lective noun  conveying  idea  of  tinitj/  for  its  nominative  ;  but  it  has  a  plural 
form  ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  and  should  be  wasieen  in  the  singular,  ac-- 
cording  to  Rule  X. 

The  committee  were  unanimous.  The  nation  were  in  habiliments  of 
mourning.  The  army  vgre  routed.  The  meeting  were  large,  and  contin- 
ued two  hours.  A  large  company  were  in  attendance.  The  association 
meet  annually.     The  church  have  no  power  to  inflict  corporal  punishment. 

By  Rule  XI. 

Model  "  Blessed  m  the  people  that  know  the  joyful  sound."  The  verb 
is  has  a  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plurality  for  its  nominative  ;  but 
has  the  singular  form ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  it  should  be  are  in  the 
plural,  to  agree  with  its  nommatWe people,  accordiag  to  Rule  XI. 

My  people  doth  not  consider.  The  committee  wai  divided  in  it^  senti- 
ments, and  it  has  referred  the  business  to  the  general  meeting.  The  mul- 
titude eagerly  pursues  pleasure  as  its  chief  good.  The  peasantry  goes  bare- 
foot ;  and  the  middle  sort  makea  use  of  wooden  shoes.  The  council,  being 
divided  in  its  sentiments,  adjourned  without  coming  to  any  conclusion.     . 

By  Rule   XII. 

Model.  "  A  roan's  enemies  are  those  of  their  own  household."  The  pro- 
noun their  relates  to  an  antecedent  of  the  singular  number  ;  but  it  \s  plu- 
ral ;  then  it  is  incorrect ;  and  should  be  his,  in  the  lingular,  to  agree  with 
the  antecedent  i7iati,  according  to  Rule  XIL 

Every  one  must  take  care  of  themseltes.  There  are  twelve  States  f^Aoare 
adjacent  to  the  Atlantic.  The  nwa  which  I  saw  were  tall  and  robust.  Speak 
to  the  men,  and  say  to  him.  The  wheel  killed  another  man,  who  is  the 
sixth  that  have  lost  their  life  by  this  means. 


constructive  grammar.  151 

♦  By  Notb  3. 

Mary  and  Eliza,  who  study  her  ICsgons  well,  make  a  very  rapid  pro- 
ficiency. Henry  or  William,  who  trifles  away  their  time,  adrances  very 
slowly.     Neither  Arthur  nor  Thomas  recites  their  lessoa  well. 

Bt  Notes  and  Remarks  under  Ruli  XV. 

Th9S6  sort  of  goods  is  not  fashionable.  The«e  sort  of  favors  does  real 
injury.  The  pole  is  twenty /oof  long.  Sing  the  two  first  lines.  James  is 
the  tallest  of  the  two.  He  is  the  viseroi  the  three.  Eve  was  the  fairest 
of  all  her  daughters.  Socrates  was  wiser  than  the  Grecian  philosophers. 
Solomon  was  the  most  wisest  man.  This  is  a  more  better  way.  Remove 
them  papers  from  the  desk,  and  bring  me  them  books.  Observe  them  men. 
Them  l^ies  are  well  dressed.  This  here  is  a  very  sweet  apple.  Do  you 
see  that  there  men  ?  Will  you  take  any  of  these  two  apples  ?  Neither  of 
those  three  men  can  write  his  name. 

Bt  Rule  XVII  and  Remarks. 

llo'lel  "  The  rose  smells  sweetly ."  In  this  example  sweetly  qOalifies  the 
action  of  the  verb  smells,  and  may  be  predicated  of  the  subject  rose  ;  but 
it  has  the  form  of  an  adverb  ;  it  is,  therefore,  inctrrect ;  it  should  be  ttceet, 
an  adjective,  according  to  Rule  XVII. 

Open  thine  had  xeidely.  The  eggs  boil  hardly.  Tho  fields  look  freshly 
and  gaily.  The  clay  burns  whitely.  Apples  boil  softly.  The  lowering 
clouds  are  moving  glow.  I  fed  badly.  Those  young  ladies  dance  grace- 
ful.    She  looks  coldly.     The  fiver  flows  rapid.     She  sings  sweet. 

Br  Rule  XIX. 

Model.  "  5(5  that  will  not  study,  y«u  must  correct."  In  this  sentence, 
he  is  the  object  of  the  verb  rmLst  correct ;  but  it  has  the  subjective  form  ; 
then  it  is  incorrect ;  and  should  be  him  in  the  objective,  according  to  Rule 
XIX. 

Who  ye  ignorantly  worship,  he  declare  I  unto  you.  He  and  they  we 
know  ;  who  are  ye  ?  She  that  is  negligent,  reprove  sharply.  He  that  is 
weak  in  the  faith,  receive  ye.  She  I  shall  more  readily  forgive.  Thou 
only  have  I  chosen.  Who  shall  we  send  on  this  errand  ?  Whoever  the 
court  favors  is  safe.  Who  ^o  you  think  I  saw  the  other  day  ?  He  accosts 
whoever  he  meets.     I  he  delights  to  save. 

By  Rule  XXT. 

Model,  •'  From  he  that  is  need)^,  turn  not  away."  Tho  object  of  a  prepo- 
sition is  put  in  the  oijcciipg  case ;  he  is  the  object  of  a  preposition  ;  but  not 
in  the  objective  case ;  the  sentence  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  it  should  be  him 
in  the  objective,  according  to  Rule  XXI. 

-JfTio  did  you  walk  with  ? '  Ho  gave  the  books  to  Jaraci  and  /.  Between 
you  and  /there  is  a  great  disparity  of  years.  I  lent  tlie  book  to  some  one, 
I  know  not  to  who.  Does  that  boy  know  who  he  is  speaking  to?  I  bestow 
my  favors  on  whoever  I  will.     Let  not  quarrels  occur  among  ye. 


152  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

NoTis  UKDiB  Rule  XXIV.  * 

Notes  1  and  3.— That  clergyman  preached  an  excellent  sermon,  but  will 
*  preach  no  more.     He  confessed  bw  fault,  but  would  not  promise  amand- 
ment. 

Note  undm  Ruli  XXV. 

Model.  ^^  Nobody  d4^i  care  for  me."  In  this  sentence,  two  negatives  are 
employed  to  convey  a  negative  meaning ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect ;  it  should 
be,  No  one  caret  for  me,  according  to  Note  3,  under  Rule  XXV. 

I  <i<m'tknow  nothing  about  it  I  nevtr  heard  nobody  say  it.  I  ean^t  do 
w>  better.  He  ain't  got  no  more.  In  our  neighborhood,  nobody  never 
takes  no  newspapers. 

By  Rulb  XXVI. 

Model  "He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures."     To  lie,  in  this 
sentence,  is  construed  with  the  verb  iii'iketh  ;  but  the  sign  of  the  infinitive 
is  expressed ;  the  sentence  is,  therefore,  incorrect;   it  should   be,  JfaiefA 
Tne  lie  doten^  etc.,  according  to  Rule  XXVI. 

Bid  him  to  go.  Make  tiie  man  to  work.  See  the  student  tc  read.  Hear 
him  to  recite.    Feel  the  chair  to  move.     lie  only  maketh  me  to  dwell  in 

safety. 

Bt  Ruli  XXVIII. 

Model  "  Him  having  arrived,  the  army  commenced  its  march."  Ilim 
Is  placed  before  a  participle,  having  no  verb  to  agree  with  it ;  but  has  the 
objective  form  ;  it- is,  therefore  incorrect ;  it  should  be  he  in  the  norrdnative 
absolute,  according  to  Rule  XXVIII. 

'  It  was  declared  to  me,  him  being  being  present.     It  was  said  of  him 
them  being  in  the  company.     Her  descending  the  ladder  fell. 

To   BE   CORRECTID   BT   THB    "DiAORAM  Oy   TiMB." 

"  M^del  "  I  finiihed  my  letter  before  the  maid  arrived."  The  verb^n- 
ished  is  in  the  past  tense  ;  whereas  it  is  used  in  the  prior  of  two  pott 
events;  therefore  the  verb  is  incorrect;  it  should  be  had  finished,  in  the 
pluperfect,  according  to  Figure  4  of  the  "  Diagram  of  Time." 

We  hate  studied  our  lessons  yesterday.  I  never  drank  better  water. 
We  came  here  to-day.  Philosophers  have  made  great  discoveries  last  cen- 
tury. I  have  endeavored  during  the  last  summer,  to  make  myself  thor- 
oughly acquainted  as  possible  with  our  systenj  of  common  schools.  After 
I  have  quoted  the  text,  you  will  see  the  application.  After  I  visited  Europe 
I  returned  to  America.  The  thief  escaped  before  the  goods  were  missed. 
The  world  will  have  been  destroyed  by  fire.  John  will  complete  his  task 
by  the  time  appointed.  The  Houses  of  Congress  will  finish  their  business 
by  the  5th  of  May. 


OONeTnUOTITS    Gt&AiAtiJ^IU  163 

CHAPTER     XXIX. 

MIBCSLLANBOnS    REMARKS. 

Rem.  1 — Verbs  which  in  point  of  time  relate  to  each  other,  should "ugroe  in  tenee  ; 
as,  "  Caesar  leaves  Gaul,  erottct  the  Rubicon,  and  enters  Italy  with  five  thousand 
men  ;  or  we  may  say,  Cscsar  left  Gaul,  crossed  the  Rubicon,  and  entered  Italy  with 
five  thousand  men.  Now,  as  these  verbs  all  relate  to  the  same  point  of  time,  they 
properly  agree  in  tense,  whether  used  in  the  present  for  greater  vivacity  of  narra- 
tive, or  in  the  past  tense  to  point  out  a  period  of  time,  which  is  entirely  past.  It 
would,  however,  be  incorrect  to  say,  Caosar  Left  Gaul,  erosies  the  Rubicon,  and  en- 
tered Italy,  etc.,  for  they  do  not  now  agree  in  tense,  though  they  refer  to  the  same 
period  of  time. 

Rem.  2. — Verbs  which  do  not  refer  to  the  same  period  of  time,  should  be  in  differ- 
ent tenses  ;*  hence  the  following  sentence  is  incorrect,  vis. :  "  The  Lord  fiath  given, 
and  the  Lord  hath  taken  arpa%.^'  It  is  obvious  that  these  two  verbs  refer  to  different 
periods  of  time  ;  since  the  act  of  giving  was  prior  to  that  of  taking  away  ;  hence 
these  verbs  should  be  in  different  tenses  ;  thus,  the  Lord  yaoc,  and  he  hath  taken 
*^^y-  fip^""  "" 

"  Had  he  loved  Spain  more,  and  England  less,  he  had  never  died  on  the  scaf- 
fold."—Hawkos'  History  of  North  Carolina,  vol.  I.,  page  67.  This  uso  of  the 
tenses,  though  sanctioned  by  authority  of  the  highest  grade,  is  not  philosophically 
aconrate ;  for,  while  had  loved  and  had  died  are  in  the  same  tense,  they  do  not  re- 
fer to  the  same  period  of  time ;  since  the  period  of  time  pointed  out  by  had  loved 
is  necessarily  prior  to  that  pointed  out  by  hud  died ;  then  it  would  be  more  consis- 
tent with  the  analogy  of  the  language,  if  not  quite  so  poetic,  to  vary  the  form  of 
expression  a  little;  thus,  Had  he  loved  Spain  more  and  England  less,  he  would 
never  have  died  on  the  soafTold. 

Rbm.  3.— As  other  words  and  phrases  point  out  the  relation  of  timo,  %  due  regard 
to  these  relations  should  be  observed.  "  On  tho  morrow,  because  he  would  have 
known  the  certainty  whereof  Paul  was  accused  of  the  Jews,  he  loosed  him  from  his 
bands."  The  phrase  on  the  morrow  points  out  future  time,  and  the  verb  would 
have  known,  as  indicated  by  the  tense,  refers  to  past  time,  but  the  time  which  the 
verb  is  intended  to  point  is  not  really  past,  but  harmonizes  with  that  indicated  by 
on  the  morrow ;  hence  tho  verb  is  put  in  the  wrong  tense;  it  should  be,  On  the  mor- 
row, because  he  would  know,  etc. 

Rem.  4. — When\the  infinitive  is  construed  with  such  verbs  as  express  desire,  in- 
tention, hope,  or  command,  it  should  be  put  in  tho  pr€f:ent  tense ;  as,  •'  I  intended  to 
vorite  last  week. 

Rem.  6. — Future  time  may  be  pointed  out  by  construing  the  Infinitive  present 
with  the  present  tense  of  the  verb  to  be;  as, "  Harrison  is  to  be  the  next  President." 
"  They  are  to  be  married  to-morrow." 

Rbm.  8. — When  a  comparison  is  instituted  between  a  co-ordinato  and  a  subordi- 
nate clause,  the  two  clauses  should  not  be  separated  from  each  other  by  the  Inter- 
position of  some  other  clause  or  phrase ;  hence  the  following  sentenee  is  not  cor- 
rectly construed  ;  as,  "  He  was  more  beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired,  as  Cynthio. 
It  should  be,  "  He  wan  more  beloved  than  Cynthio,  but  not  so  much  admired." 

Rem.  7. — When  a  sentence  is  commenced  with  either  style,  it  should  be  eontinued 
throughout  the  sentence.     The  following  sentence,  in  this  respect,  is  incorrect: 

"  You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own." 

Rem.  8. — The  preposition  at  is  generally  construed  before  the  names  of  villages 
or  small  towns,  and  also  before  foreign  cities,  but  in  is  generally  construed  before 
large  towns  or  cities  of  our  own  country ;  as,  "  He  resides  at  High  Point."  They 
live  in  ifeto   York." 

» 
♦It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  potential  pluperfect,  with  respect  to  time,  is  the 
esme  as  the  indicative  past. 


154  ANALrnOAL,    ILLCeritAVIVB      AND 

Rem.  9. — Betwetn,  Among.  Betiaeen  should  be  used  to  show  tho  relation 
between  two  persons  or  thinfl;8,  or  between  two  cla»aea  of  pqrsona  or  things,  and 
among  when  more  than  two;  as,  "  Between  you  and  me,  there  is  a  groat  disparity 
•f  years."    "  l*h«y  w»Iked  among  the  trees  of  the  garden." 


CHAPTER    XXX. 


EXERCISES    IN    FAL8K    SYNTAX    PROMISCUOUSLY    ARRANGED. 

Bbm.— In  correcting  tho  following  sentence?,  tho  learner  must  not  limit  himself 
to  the  Rules,  Notes,  and  Remarks  of  Syntax,  but  he  must  refer  to  tho  Diagram  o» 
TiMB,  to  the  Misoellanaous  and  General  Remarks,  to  tho  Peculiar  Constructions 
and  Colloquial  Inaccuracies. 

Tho  laws  of  Draco  is  said  to  have  been  written  xvith  human  blood.  His 
bting  at  enmity  with  Caesar  and  Antony,  were  the  cause  of  discord.  The 
property  of  my  friend,  I  mean  his  books  and  furniture,  were  wlioUy  con- 
sumed. Man's  happiness  or  misery  are,  in  a  great  measure,  Y»laced  in  his 
own  hands.  The  planetary  system,  boundless  space,  and  the  immense 
ocean,  afifects  the  mind  with  sensations  of  astonishment  I,  Napoleon  B«- 
naparte,  Consul  of  France,  and  Commander  of  the  French  forces  at  Tou- 
logue,  offers  a  reward  of  flva  hundred  francs  for  information  concerning  con- 
spiracies against  me.  Me  being  in  great  haste,  he  consented.  To  love  God 
with  all  thy  heart,  are  a  divine  command.  Them  that  instruct  others 
should  look  well  to  themselves.  Let  ub  to  proceed.  Who  went  with  Jane 
to  church?  Me.  Still  water  runs  deeply.  Sing  the  two  first  stanzas. 
Augustus,  the  Roman  emperor,  him,  who  succeeded  Julius  Ciesar,  is  various- 
ly described  by  historians. 

Oh  !  Thou  my  voice  inspire, 

Who  touched  Jgaiah's  hallowed  lips  with  fire. 

Sow  rarely  reasoii  guides  the  stubborn  choice  I 
Rule  the  bold  hand,  or  prompt  the  suppliant  voice. 

I  remember  the  family  more  than  twenty  years  ago.  I  have  been  at  Wash- 
ington last  June,  where  I  saw  General  Andrew  Jackson,  he  who  is  now 
President.  It  was  one  cold  evening  in  February,  the  snow  had  not  yet 
began  to  melt,  when  a  man  came  reeling  forth  out  of  the  village.  Adams 
and  Jefferson,  them  who  died  on  the  fourth  of  July,  1826,  were  both  sign- 
ers and  the  firm  supporters  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Yet  so  long  as  intemperance  reigns,  and  you,  my  friend,  refrain  from  lend- 
ing your  aid  in  opposition  to  it,  just  so  long  will  the  tears  of  women  and 
the  moans  of  the  orphan,  continue;  juFt  so  long  will  intemperance  hang 
bis  blick  escutcheon  o'er  the  grave  of  talent  and  greatness,  whiW  the  min- 
ions ol  Satan  rejoioeth. 

Not  one  in  fifty  of  those  who  call  themselves  Deists,  undarstand  the  na- 
ture of  the  religion  which  they  reject,  lied  he  been  instructed  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  Christianity,  he  had  been  a  betier  man  and  a  wiser  legislator. 

There  is  a  spirit  in  man,  and  the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty  giveth  them 
under.«tanding.  In  the  conduct  of  Parnunio,  a  mixture  of  wisdom  and  fol- 
Iv  were  conspicuous.   Henry  and  ^Villiaiii,  who  obey  tlieir  teacher,  improves 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  155 

fast.  Tf  T  was  Alexander,  I  would  accept  the  terms ;  so  would  T,  if  I  was 
Parmenio.  After  he  visited  Egypt,  he  went  to  Palestine.  Th«ra  students 
•re  very  careless,  nor  is  it  probable  that  they  will  learn  much.  This  here 
book  has  been  badly  injured.  Every  town,  every  village,  afid  every  house 
wei^  burned.     Either  1  or  thou  are  in  the  wrong. 

The  blenting  sheep  with  my  complaints  agree, 
Them  parched  with  heat,  and  me  inflamed  by  thee. 

So  great  Eneas  rushes  to  the  fight. 
Sprung  from  a  god,  and  more  than  mortal  bold, 
Him  fresh  in  youth,  and  me  in  arms  grow  old. 

High  hopes  and  ambitious  views  is  a  great  enemy  to  tranquility.  A  too 
great  variety  of  studies  dissipate  and  weaken  the  mind.  There  was  much 
spoke  and  wrote  on  the  subject,  but  I  have  chose  to  suspend  my  decision. 

Religion  raises  m«n  above  themselves ;  irreligion  sinks  them  beneath 
brutes  ;  that  binds  them  down  to  a  poor  pitiable  speck  of  earth ;  this  opens 
for  them  a  prospect  to  the  skies.  Temperance  and  exercise,  howsoever  little 
they  may  be  regarded,  they  are  the  bes^jneans  of  preserving  health. 

Each  must  answer  for  themselves.  To  despise  others  on  account  ol  their 
poverty,  or  to  value  ourselves  on  account  of  our  wealth,  are  dispoBitions 
hiRhly  culpable. 

When  Parick  appeared,  Peter  was  for  some  time  in  doubt  whether  it 
could  be  him  or  not.  Socrates'  wisdom  have  been  the  subject  of  many  a 
conversation.  Is  it  him  ?  Which  of  the  two  masters,  says  Seneca,  shall 
we  most  esteem?— he  who  strives  to  correct  his  scholars  by  prudent  advice 
and  motives  of  honor,  or  ho  who  will  lash  them  ieverely  for  not  repeating 
their  lessons  as  they  ought? 

He  had  no  master  to  instruct  him  ;  he  had  read  nothing  but  the  writings 
of  Moses  and  the  prophets,  and  had  received  no  lessons  from  the  Socrates',* 
Plato's,  and  Confuscius's  of  the  age. 

Here  rages  force,  bore  tremble  flight  and  fear. 
Here  stormed  contention,  and  here  fury  frowned  ; 
The  Cretan  javelin  reached  him  from  afar, 
And  pierced  his  shoulder  as  he  mounts  his  car. 

Calumny  and  detraction  are  sparks  which,  if  you  do  not  blow,  tbey  will 
go  out  of  themselves. 

Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense, 
Lies  in  three  words — health,  peace  and  competence. 

The  polite,  accomplished  libertine  is  but  miserable  amidst  all  his  pleas- 
ures ;  the  rude  Laplander  is  happier  than  him. 

They  that  honor  me,  them  will  I  honor.  He  would  not  believe  that  hon- 
esty was  the  best  policy.  A  great  mass  of  rocks  thrown  together  with 
wildness  and  eonfusion,  strike  the  mind  with  more  grandeur  than  if  they 
were  adjusted  to  one  another  with  the  accuratest  symmetry.  Take  hand- 
fuls  of  ashes  and  let  Moses  sprinkle  it  towards  heaven,  in  the  sight  of 
Pharaoh,  and  it  shall  become  small  dust. 

♦The  pospesiivf  c«ne  muet  not.  be  uped  for  the  pinral  number.  In  this  quotation  from 
the  letter*  of  Baron  Haller  to  his  daughter,  the  proper  names  should  be  plnralized  like  the 
common  nouns ;  thus,  "  From  the  Socrates,  Platos  and  Confuciuses  ' 


166  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

Wealth  and  poverty  are  both  temptations  to  man ;  this  tends  to  excite 
pride ;  that  disappointment.  The  king  and  tyrant  are  very  different  charac- 
ters ;  that  rules  bis  people  by  his  absolute  will  and  power ;  this  by  laws  to 
which  they  consent.  Of  whom  wer»  the  articles  bought  ?  of  a  grocer  ;  he 
who  resides  near  the  Mansion  House. 

A  second  deluge  learning  thus  o'errun, 

And  th«  Monks  finished  what  the  Goths  begun. 

You  draw  the  inspiring  breath  of  ancient  song, 
Till  nobly  rises  emulous  thy  own. 

Thou,  goddess-mother,  with  our  sire  comply, 
If  you  submit,  the  thunderer  stands  appeased. 

Self-love,  the  spring  of  action,  moves  the  soul, 
Reason's  comparing  balance  rules  the  whole  ; 
Man,  but  for  this,  no  action  could  attend, 
Man,  but  for  that,  were  active  to  no  end. 

Him  with  viny  crown  advancing, 

Tirst  to  the  lively  pipe  his  hand  addressed. 

Thee  sung,  sweet  bride,  with  unreposing  lay, 

Thou  first  at  mom  deplored,  thou  last  at  close  of  day. 

He  might  have  completed  his  task  sooner,  but  he  could  not  do  it  better. 
The  most  ignorant  and  the  most  savage  tribes  of  men,  when  they  have 
looked  round  on  the  earth,  and  on  the  heavens,  could  not  avoid  ascribing 
their  origin  to  some  invisible,  designing  cause,  and  felt  a  propensity  to  adore 
their  Creator.  You  thought  it  was  her,  but  it  was  not  her  ;  for  I  knew  it 
to  be  him.  Whom  do  men  say  that  I,  the  son  of  man,  am.  The  Lord 
whom  I  serve,  is  eternal.  Though  thou  wast  as  huge  as  Atlas,  thy  efforts 
would  be  vain.  Take  heed  that  thou  speakest  not  to  Jacob.  I  shall  walk 
out,  unless  it  rains.  I  will  drown ;  for  no  man  shall  help  me.  I  will  meet 
thee  there,  if  thee  please. 

Thou  shouldst  not  take  the  matter  in  your  own  hands.  Who  did  thou 
walk  with  ?  She.  Who  dares  apologize  for  Pizarro — who  is  but  another 
name  for  rapacity  ?  The  sincere  is  always  esteemed.  Joshua  was  chose  to 
be  the  leader  of  Israel  in  the  room  of  Moses,  who  was  not  permitted  to  pass 
over  Jordan ;  because  he  had,  on  one  occasion,  spoke  unadvisedly.  Though 
the  measure  be  mysterious,  it  is  not  unworthy  of  your  attention.  Nobody 
don't  know  nothing  about  it.  This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  alL 
He  enters  the  territory  of  the  peaceable  inhabitants,  lays  waste  their  coun- 
try, and  depopulated  the  most  flourishing  towns  and  cities. 

Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  cf  my  life,  and 
I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever.  Acquaint  thyself  with 
God,  if  you  would  taste  his  works. 

Admitted  once  to  his  embrace. 
Thou  shalt  perceive  that  thou  wert  blind  before  ; 
Thine  eyes  shall  be  instructed  and  thine  heart. 
Made  pure,  shall  relish  with  divine  delight, 
Till  then  unfelt,  what  hands  divine  has  wrought. 


cp^f«TRUCTl^^:  grammar. 


157 


CHAPTiER     XXXI. 


COLLOQUIAL    I  N  A  C  CU  R  A.  C  I  K  9  . 

§1.  As  colloquial  inaccuracies  are  too  numerous  and  varied 
to  be  comprehended  by  any  syntactical  rules,  however  copious, 
we  have  thrown  together  some  of  these  inaccuracies,  and  ar- 
ranged the  correct  and  the  incorrect  expressions  in  parallel 
columns.  Though  these  colloquial  inaccuracies  may  vary,  not 
only  in  different  States,  but  also  in  different  sections  of  the 
same  State,  yet  they  may  nearly  all  be  traced  to  three  leading 
sources,,  via.,  1.  Unwarrantable  contractions,  2.  Redundant 
words  or  Pleonastic  expressions,  and  8.  Words  badly  chosen  to 
convey  the  tense  intended. 


§3. 


CLASS    I. 
UNWARRANTABLE    CONTRACTIONS. 


Though  some  contractions  are  admissible  in  familiar  style,- 
yet  they  should  be  carefully  avoided  in  all  grave  or  solemn  dis 


course. 


§5. 


INCORRECT. 


I,  ai'nt  well, 

I  havnt  been  out, 

He  isnt  at  home, 

We  werii't  there, 

I  didnt  do  it, 

I  hadn't  heart  of  it, 

They've  come,     ,» 

We're  ready, 

It's  been  warm, 

She'd  heard  of  it. 

Til  assist  you, 

I  us'd  to  know  it, 

We're  sisters. 

The  door  tvatn't  shut, 

ffe's  rich, 

You'll  see  'im, ' 

I've  seeif' er, 

I  'spos*  'tioill. 

Lay  'em  on  the  table, 

I  b'lieve  it, 

Gim  me  some  broad, 


CORRECT. 

« 
I  am  not  well. 
I  have  not  been  out. 
He  is  not  at  home. 
We  were  not  there.. 
I  did  not  do  it, 
I  had  not  heard  of  it. 
They  have  come. 
We  are  ready. 
It  has  been  warm. 
She  had  heard  of  it. 
I  will  assist  you. 
I  used  to  know  it. 
We  are  sisters. 
The  door  was  not  shut. 
He  is  rich.   . 
You  will  see  him. 
I  have  seen  her. 
I  suppose  it  will. 
Lay  them  on  the  table. 
I  believe  it. 
Give  me  some  Sread. 


18 


168 


AVAATTIOAL,  IbLUST&AMTI    X¥9 


INOOBRBOT. 

It's  a'mott  too  late, 
A  greadeal  too  large, 
A  good' eel  to  short, 
He  haint  none, 
'  Taint  his, 
You  don't  know  '«7n, 
(7aw'it  he  go  ? 
May  n't  she  stay  ? 
You  musnt  do  so, 
John's  got  enough, 


<;ORBBC». 

It  is  almost  too  late. 

A  great  deal  (or  much)  too  large. 

Very  much  too  short'. 

He  has  none. 

It  is  not  his. 

You  do  not  know  him. 

Can  he  not  go  ? 

May  she  not  stay  ? 

You  must  not  do  so. 

John  has  enough. 


•  CLASS    II. 

§  4.    EEDUNDANT  WORDS  OR  PLIOHASTIO   EXPRESSIONS: 


INCORRECT. 


I  could  not  get  to  go, 

The  speaker  rose  wp. 

He  fell  down, 

Up  above, 

Up  over, 

Down  under,  • 

He  mentioned  it  over  again, 

I  will  replace  it  again. 

They  both  met, 

He  cannot  tell /or  why. 

Return  back  immediately, 

He  went,  but  soon  came  bAcJe 

again, 
Where  shall  I  go  to  ? 
You  sheuld  be  ever  constant 

to  the  truth, 
I  saw  no  one  ehe  but  him. 
He  was  in  here  when  I  saw  him 
We  entered  into  the  cave, 
I  am  a  going. 
He  is  a  walking, 
Can  you  go  ?     To  he  ture, 
Whos'  book  is  this  here  ? 
D'ye  see  that  thar  nmn  ? 
We've  done  eat, 
I've  done  said  it, 
But  he's  dons  done  it, 


COBRBCT. 

I  could  not  go. 

The  speaker  rose. 

He  fell. 

Above. 

Over. 

Under. 

He  mentioned  it  again. 

I  will  replace  it. 

They  met. 

He  cannot  tell  why. 

Return  immediately. 

He  went,  but  soon  returned. 
* 

Where  shall  I  go  ?  _^ 

You  should  be  constant  to  the 

truth. 
•I  saw  no  one  but  him. 
,  He  was  here  when  I  saw  him. 

We  entered  the  cave. 

I  am  going. 

He  is  walking. 

Can  you  go  ?     Surely. 

Whose  book  is  this  ? 

Do  you  see  that  man  ? 

W^e  have  eaten. 

I  have  said  it. 

But  he  has  done  it. 


OONSTRUCTIVa    QRAMMAft. 


159 


IWOORRICT. 


How  do  you  do  t 

He  has  got  enough, 

John  he  said  it, 

Mary  she  went, 

I  saw  her  the  Queen, 

Them  met  'z'm  the  preacher, 

John  his  hand  and  pen, 

Mary  her  bonnet, 

l^ow  go  now, 

The  bees  they  have  swarmed. 

Bring  me  them  there  books, 


CORRBOT. 

How  are  you  ? 

He  has  enough. 

John  said  it. 

Mary  went. 

I  saw  the  Queen. 

They  met  the  preacher. 

John's  hand  and  pen. 

Mary's  bonnet. 

Now  go. 

The  bees  have  swarmed. 

Bring  me  those  books. 


CLASS    III 


§6. 


WORPS  BADLY  CHOSEN. 


INOOBRBCT. 


I  am  dry, 

Put  out  the  candle, 

Give  me  them  books, 

I  reckon  it  will  rain, 

I  guess  it  is  enough, 

I  calculate  to  return. 

You  read  right  well, 

I  am  monstrous  glad  to  see  you, 

He  has  a  heap  of  nfoney, 

I  want  it  badly, 

A  great  territory,* 

The  Erricson  is  a  big  ship,* 

Webster's  large  mind,* 

Pour  it  in  the  glass, 

Place  it  on  the  shelf. 

It  lies  upon  the  desk, 

He  is  to  the  store. 

My  mother  learned  me  the 

letters, 
I  want  it  right  bad, 
It  rains  hard, 
A  hard  battle, 
A  little  bit  a  sentence, 


CORRBCT. 

I  am  thirsty. 

Extinguish  the  light. 

Give  me  those  books. 

I  think  it  will  rain. 

I  think  it  is  enough. 

I  intend  (or  purpose)  to  return. 

Yo-u  read  very  well. 

I  am  very  glad  to  see  you. 

He  has  much  money. 

I  want  it  much. 

A  large  territory. 

The  Erricson  is  a  large  ship. 

Webster's  great  mind. 

Pour  it  into  the  glass. 

Place  it  upon  the  shelf. 

It  lies  on  the  desk. 

He  is  at  the  store. 

My   mother   taught    me  the 

letters. 
I  want  it  very  much. 
It  rains  fast. 
A  fierce  battle, 
A  small  sentence. 


*Ghbat  Is  arppUcnble  to  ment*l  measuroment ;  larox  to  tire  nrtfWJurement  ef  Bolifl. 
bbOlet),  and  biq  16  abm*  vlnnfttural  Increase  or  •walling. 


160 


ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 


INCORKEOT. 


COH«EC». 

My  mother  is  very  well. 

I  rose  at  T  o'clock. 

I'll  do  as  well  as  I  can. 

You  ought  to  go. 

Are  you  all  well  ? 

He  is  gone  after  the  cows. 

He  came  after  his  hat. 


My  mother  is  right  well, 

I  got  up  at  7  o'clock, 

I'll  do  as  well  as  I  kin, 

You  ones  ought  to  go, 

Are  yous  all  well  ? 

He  is  gone  atter  his  cows, 

He  came  artcr  his  hat, 

He  is  givine  home,  He  is  going  home. 

This  is  hisn  and  that  is  yottr'w,  This  is  his  and  that  is  yours. 

She  took  my.bcfok,    and  left     She  took  mj  book,  and  left  hers. 

hern, 
I  knoivd  it  was  Am, 
She"  telVd  me  of  it, 
I  seen  her, 
I  hearn  her, 
I  taken  it  to  him, 
You  had  better  go. 


I  knew  it  was  he. 

She  told  me  of  it. 

I  saw  her. 

I  heard  her. 

I  took  it  to  him. 

You  would  do  better  to  go. 


They  have  got  four  sons,  and    They  have  four  sons,  and  three 

three  datters, 
They  had  a  hard  fit, 
Thej  fit  a  half  an  hour, 
I  feel  mighty  bad, 
I  feel  sorter  sick, 
He    alloived    to    me,    and   I 

allowed  to  him. 
He  allowed  to  go  last  week,. 
He  lowed  it   would  be  better 

for  both, 
I  admired  at  you, 


daughters. 
They  had  a  severe  fight. 
They  fought  half  an  hour. 
I  feel  very  unwell. 
I  feel  a  little  sick. 
He  suggested  (or  said)  to  me,  and 

I  said  (or  suggested)  to  him. 
He  intended«to  go  last  week. 
He  supposed  it  would  be  better 

for  both. 
I  wonder  at  you. 


He  was  made  much  on  at  town.  He  was  made  much  of  at  town. 


Walk  in,  to  the  fire. 
He  walked  backward   and  for- 
ward. 
You  and  I  think  alike. 
Oh  !  how  it  burns. 
The  storm  began  to  subside^. 
He  brought  it. 
I  set  out  on  my  journey.  ' 
He  set  his  hat  upon  the  table. 
He  is  f^one  up  stars  to  look  at  He  has  gone  up  stairs  to  look  at 

the  stairs,  the  stars. 

Let  us  walk  out,  and  take  the  Let  us  walk   out   and    take  the 
fresh  ar^  '  fresh  air. 


Walk  into  the  five. 

He  walked  hack  and  forth, 

Me  and  you  think  alike, 
Ouch  !  how  it  burns, 
The  storm  begun  to  subside, 
,}lefotched  it, 
I  sot  out  on  my  journey. 
He  sot  his  hat  upon  the  table 


COKSTaOOTCVE   CniAirftiAR. 


161 


IN'COKRBCT. 


Thoy  air  at  home, 

Ke  came  through  the  draw  hairs, 

Crocketfwas  a  great  bar  hunter, 

Thar  he  stands, 

IFho'll    carry    the    girls    to 

church  ? 
Carry  the  horse  to  water, 
He  chau'8  his  own  tobacco, 
I    am  tolerable  well, 
,\got  sot  back  two  years, 
I  can't  mind  it, 
I  will  take  some  of  thote  mo- 
lasses,* 
He  got  hie  hroughten  up  in  this 

here  town, 
She  cant  hear  good, 
I  am  a  iceared  of  robbers, 
The  business  would  sut  any  one 

who  enjoys  bad  health, 
I  am  very  fond  o^ tparrowgrusSy 
I  gee  him  last  Monday, 
No  extras  or  vacations, 
Why  did  you   not  bring  the 

plow?  Because  «/itf  was  not 

repaired. 
She  dresses  very  neat, 
We  have  no  corporeal  punish- 

islmient  here. 
He  rail  againtt  a  snag, 
As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge, 

the  book  is  well  written. 


They  are  at  heme. 

He  came  through  the  draw  bars. 

Crockett  was  a  great  bear  hunter. 

There  he  stands. 

Who  will  accompany  the  girls 

to  church  ? 
Lead  or  ride  the  horse  to  water. 
He  chews  his  own  tobacco. 
I  am  tolerably  wdl. 
I  was  set  back  two  y«arB. 
I  can  not  recollect  it. 
I  will  take  some  of  the  (or  that) 

molasses. 
He  was  raised  in  this  town. 

She  cannot  hear  well. 

I  am  afraid  of  robbers. 

The  business  would  suit  any  one 
who  is  in  delicate  health. 

I  am  very  fond  of  asparagus. 

I  saw  him  last  Monday. 

Neither  extras  nor  vacations. 

Why  did  you  not  bring  the 
plow  ?  Because  it  was  not 
repaired. 

She  dresses  very  neatly. 

We  have   no    corporal  punish- 
ment. 

He  got  into  a  difficulty. 

So  far    as  1  am  able  to  judge, 
the  book  is  well  written. 


NEW    ENfiLAND. 


INCOkRBCT. 


am 


He  is  gwine  home,  and  I  am  He   is   going  home,  and  I 

givine  atter  him,  going  after  him. 

Where  s  your  daddy  ?  Where  is  your  father  ?  • 

Izzcnt  that  are  line  writ  well  ?  Is  not  that  line  well  written? 
Where  shall  I  dump  my  cart  ?  Where  shall  I  unload  my  cart  ? 


0     ^Molasses  is  strictly  eingular,  being  the  eyrup  which  drains  from  Mnscarado  SHgar 
whllo  cooling. 


DUTCH. 

aCOHRICT.  CORBECT. 

Have  you  any  winegar  for  saU?  Have  you  any  vinegar  for  sale  ? 
He  saw  a   warment  run  up  a  He  saw  a  vermin  run  up  a  grape 

grape  wine  in  a  wally,  vine  in  the  valley. 

He  sailed  in  a  new  wessel  to  He  sailed  in  a  new  vessel  to  thd 

the  Vest  Indies,  West  Indies. 

He  has  been  hard  %t  vorky  He  has  been  hard  at  work. 

Give  me  de  bitcher,  Give  me  the  pitcher. 

Did  you  hear  dat  tundtr  f         Did  you  bear  that  thunder  ? 
J)i%  is  mine  vife^  This  is  my  wife. 

He  said  he  would  grind  it  till  He  said  ho   would  grind  it  by 

Saturday  night,  Saturday  evening. 

He  will  finish  it  unttlnQxi  week,  He  will  finish  it  next  week, 

xsiss. 
urcoKRBor.  corrbct. 

Not   here   the   day ;   gone  till  He  is  not  here  to-day ;  he  went 

Pittsbufg,  to  Pittsburg. 

Let  u8  he  after  pairsing  a  wee  Let  us  parse  a  little. 

bity 
Where  did  you  loss  it  ?  Where  did  you  lose  it  ? 

Don't  heer ;  can't  sheer  me,       I  disregard  them;  they  cannot 

scare  me, 
I  am  not  slceern,  I  am  not  afraid. 

Tote  the  wood  to  the  river,        Carry  the  wood  to  the  river. 
Is  that  jonr  plunder,  stranger  ?  Is  that  your  baggage,  sir  ? 
Whar  you  gwine  ?  Where  are  you  going  ? 

Sese  in  cohoot  with  me.  He  is  in  partnership  with  mo. 

Who  hoped  you  to  sell  it  ?  Who  helped  you  to  sell  it? 

X'de  rather  have  my   hat  as  I  had  rather  have   my  hat  than 

yourn,  yours. 

She  is  better  as  she  was,  She  is  better  than  she  wag. 

Rem.— If  parents  would  take  the  paini  to  call  ov«r  the  foregoing  Colloquial  In- 
accuracie*,  some  once  «r  twice  a  week,  and  let  their  children  correct  them,  it  would 
contribute  •much  towards  forming  aa  elegant  and  perspicuous  style.  Teacheri 
should  not'fail  to  exereise  their  pupils  regularly  in  correoting  these  and  other  in- 
aoouracies. 


mowntvown  ski^wmak.  163 

CHAPTER     XXXII. 

PUNCTUATION    OB    QNOMONOLOOT. 

I  1.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composi- 
tion into  sentences  and  phrases,  in  order  to  make  the  stops 
which  the  sense  of  the  sentiment,  its  grammatical  construction, 
and  an  accurate  prohunciation  require. 

S  2.  The  principal  stopa  used  to  denote  these  pauses  aro, 

[] 


Comma 

> 

Asterisks 

Semicolen 

> 

Quotation 

Colon 

: 

Brackets 

Dash 

— 

Index 

Parenth^ia 

0 

Ellipsis 

Period 

Asterisk 

Interrogation 

.? 

Obelisk 

Ex,c!amation 

J 

Double-dagger 

Hyphen    ' 

- 

Paragraph 

Caret 

A 

Section 

Parallel 

11 

Brace 

t 
t 
t 

§ 

} 

Punctuation  is. a  modern  art.  The  ancients  not  only  wrott  without  dis- 
tinction of  phrases,  clauses,  or  ptriods,  but  also  without  distinction  of 
words.  When  this  practice  had  ceased,  thej?  used  cert«in  points  after  each 
word,  which  practice  continued  for  a  long  time. 

The  time  when  the  preient  system  of  punctuation  waa  inrented,  is  not 
definitely  known  ;  but  it  is  believed,  as  nothing  is  seen  of  the  points  now 
used,  in  manuscripts  and  monumental  inscriptions  prerious  to  th«  art  of 
printing,  that  it  commenced  with  that  art,  or  soon  afttr.  A.11  the  gnomons, 
or  points,  did  not  appear  at  once;  but,  a^  rcfihemeRt  snd  learning  ad- 
Tanctd,  they  gradually  increased  into  the  number  now  used. 

The  precise  quantity  assigned  to  each  of  th«  points,  or  ^lonrons,  can  not 
absolutely  b«  detertsined;  for  it  must  continually  rary  with  tho  sense  of 
the  composition.  But  the  relative  quantity  should  be  csrefully  observed. 
Regarding  the  quantity  of  the  comma  as  one;  the  relative  quantity  of  the 
semicolon  would  be  t7Co  ;  the  co\on  four  ;  and  the  period  six  or  eight,  Tha 
art  of  applying  these  gnomons,  or  points,  correctly,  can  only  bert^quired  hj 
understanding  the  construction  of  a  sentence  scitntifically.  The  nearness  ' 
•r  remoteness  of  tho  grammatical  relations  of  its  several  parts  must  be 
clearly  apprehended,  as  well  ae  ths  various  positions  which  the  elements  of 
the  sentence  may  assume  in  its  construction.  Now,  as  this  knowledge  of 
th«  construction  of  a  sentence  is  scientific,  an4  as  the  proper  application  of 
these  points  is  based  upon  this  knowledge,  punctuation  is  a  eciKNCB  a» 
V)4ll  at  an  art. 

Sinca  ther«  is  a  striking  resemblance  between  the  scienco  of  dialing  and 
that  of  punctuation,  Mr.  James  Brown  has  properly  denominated  the 
science  which  treats  of  tho  characters  used  in  punctuation,  gnouvonoh'jy, 
ABd  th»  characters  themselvefthe  calls  fnom&m,  or  t/K/<w«.     The  gnomon, 


164  .4KAMVK«d^   USLVMTBikWTS     JMB 

in  dialing,  is  th«  styl«,  or  pin,  whose  ghadow  points  out  the  hour  of  the  day; 
then,  as  the  hands  of  a  clock  or  wat«h  point  out  the  time  marked  upon 
its  face,  they  may,  properly  enough,  be  called  gnomons.  A  gnomon,  then, 
seems  to  be  a  small  part  attached  to  larger  ones,  to  point  out  the  resultant 
or  combined  effect  of  some  more  complicated  parts  or  machinery.  As.the 
hands  of  a  clock  or  watch  ar«  very  inconsiderable,  compared  with  the  com- 
plicated machinery,  whose  combined  effect  they  point  out,  yet  they  are  ex- 
ceedingly useful ;  so  the  characters,  or  gnomons,  used  in  punctuation,  or 
gnomonology,  arerery  small,  compared  with  the  complicated  and  complex 
nature  of  language  or  speech  ;  yet,  as  they,  like  the  gnomon  of  the  dial, 
point  out  the  sense  of  composition,  they  are  of  no  ordinary  importance  in  the 
general  structure  of  language.  This  importance  demands  a  mare  thorough 
and  scientific  inrestigation  than  is  gen«rally  allowed  it  by  writers  ©n  lan- 
guagoi. 

Comma. 

Th«  importance  of  the  proper  application  of  the  comma  will  be  clearly 
percoivad  from  the  investigation  of  a  few  examples.  ''  Verily  I  say  unto 
tlaee,  to-day  shalt  thou  be  with  ma  in  paradise."  As  the  sentence  is  now 
punctuated,  the  adverbial  element  to  day  limits  the  logical  predicate  sTialt 
%e  in  paradise.,  by  pointing  out  the  time  vihen  qf  the  affirmation;  and  the 
parson  addrtssed  would  expect  to  realize  thi  fulfillment  of  the  promise  on 
the  same  day  on  which  it  was  made.  But  let  us  place  the  comma  after  the 
elemeot  tt-day,  thus,  Verily  I  say  unto  thee  to-day.,  thou  Shalt  be  with  me 
in  paradise.  To-day  now  modifles  the  verb  say  by  pointing  out  the  time 
of  the  assertion  m^de  by  the  speaker,  leaving  the  time  of  entering  paradise 
wholly  indefinite.     The  former  is  the  correct  punctuation. 

Again, 

"  Be  thou,  0  my  doer,  open  ever  more, 
To  none  be  shut  to  honest  or  to  poor." 

This  couplet  is  said  to  have  been  written  over  the  door  of  a  very  benevo- 
lent man,  and,  of  course,  as  it  is  now  punctuated,  all  who  understand  the 
punctuation  of  the  sentence,  would  expect  to  find  an  open  door  and  a 
hearty  welcome.  But,  in  process  of  time,  the  house  is  said  to  have  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  one  whose  character  was  exactly  oppesite  to  that  of  its 
former  owner.  The  couplet  was,  however,  permitted  t©  remain,  and  the 
only  alteration  made  was  the  removal  ef  the  comma  from  its  position  at 
the  end  of  the  first  line,  and  its  insertion  after  the  word  none.     Thus  : 

"Be  thou,  0  my  door,  open  ever  more 
To  none,  be  ehut  to  honeit  or  to  poor." 

This  change,  however  small,  hag  entirely  reversed  the 'meaning  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  as  every  one  who  studies  the  sentence  attentively,  must  perceive 
that  the  door  is  now  open  to  none,  and  shut  to  honest  or  to  poor.  Mr. 
Kirkham  quetes  an  advertisement  concerning  one  Mr.  Tryen,  who,  for  the 
want  of  a  single  comma,  is  represented  as  having  a  short  nose  turned  up 
about  six  feet  high.  The  advertisement  is  as  fellows :  "  Tryon  who  es- 
caped jail  on  Friday  last,*  is  22  years  ei  age,  has  sandy  hair,  light  eyes, 
thin  visage,  with  a  short  nose  turned  up  about  six  feet  high,"  etc.  Mr. 
Kirkham  relieves  this  poor  feliow  of  this  enormous  nose,  by  inserting  a 
comma  after  the  word  up.  But  as  important  as  the  comma  is  in  this  and 
many  other  cases,  yet  we  think  that  Mr.  T.'s  nose  may  be  considerably 
shortened  by  a  change  in  the  constructidft.     Thus :  "  Tryon  who  escaped 


00N8TRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  166 

jail  on  Friday  last,  is  22  years  of  age,  and  is  about  six  feet  high,  has  sandy 
hair,  light  eyes,  thin  visage,  with  a  short  nose  turned  up." 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  appear  obvious  to  all  who  attentively 
study  this  subject,  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  comtruction.  of  a  sen- 
tence is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  any  one  to  apply  these  gnomons  ac- 
curately. Before  entering  upon  an  investigation  of  the  Rules  of  Punctua- 
tion, a  few  general  principlea  of  the  science  are  here  premised  : 
,  1.  When  a  modifying  element  is  in  juxta  position  with  its  super  in  the 
regular  order  of  construction,  a  comma  is  seldom  admitted  between  them ; 
us,  "  Hope  is  necessary  in  every  condition  of  life."  In  this  sentence,  in 
every  condition  limits  the  predicate  is  necessary^  and  of  life  limits  in  every 
c<?n(^/^i(7?i. ;  hence  the  relation  of  the  several  parts  is  so  intimate  that  no 
comma  can  be  used  without  injuring  ihe  sense.  But,  if  we  construe  the  sen- 
tence thus,  "  In  every  condition  of  life,  hope  is  necessary,"  a  comma  is 
readily  admissible  at  the  place  of  constructive  contact  between  the  nub 
and  its  sv})er  ;  for,  as  as  the  siLb  now  occupies  the  place  of  its  super,  the 
intimancy  of  its  connection  is  somewhat  interrupted,  and  a  comma  is  not 
only  admissible,  but  desirable ;  for  the  importance  of  the  mper  entitles  it 
to  emphasis,  hence  a  short  pause  is  necessary  on  approaching  the  super,  in 
order  to  attract  attention,  and  to  utter  it  with  the  force  which  its  impor. 
tance  demands. 

2.  A  comma  is  harmless,  and  consequently  admissible,  between  any  two 
elements  which  have  no  constructive  relation  with  each  other;  as,  "Moses 
led  the  children  of  Israel,  from  Egypt,  to  the  borders  of  Canaan."  In  this 
sentence, /ro??i  ^QVpt  has  no  constructive  alfinity  for  the  element  <?/'/'»raeZ; 
for  the  meaning  is  not  o/ /srae/  from  Egypt;  but  Moses  led  the  children 
from  Egypt;  nor  has  the  element  to  the  borders  any  constructive' connec- 
tion with  the  element/rowj.  Egypt ;  hence  a  comma  is  harmless  before  and 
xiierihQ  Q\QvciQni  from  Egypt.  But  a  comma  is  not  admissible  at  any 
other  point.  In  such  constructions,  when  the  sentence  is  long,  and  one 
of  the  elements  complex,  the  comma  may  be  advantageously  used ;  since  it 
would  show  that  the  parts  separated  have  no  constructive  relation  with 
each  other;  is,  "The  ancients  separated  the  corn  from  the  ear,  by  causing 
an  ox  to  trample  on  the  sheaves." 

3.  As  secondary  adjective  elements  can  only  limi,t  a  substantive  element 
indirectly  through  the  medium  of  their  primaries  or  supers,  they  must  not 
be  separated  from  their  supers  by  any  point  whatever;  as,  ''^  Pale  red 
lining."  "A  rery  old  man."  But,  as  secondary  adjective  elements  are 
sometimes  used  as  primary  adjectives,  they  must  be  separated  to  prevent 
ambiguity,  even  where  the  expression  of  a  conjunction  would  be  harsh,  if 
not  inadmissible  ;  as,  "  That  is  the  very  old  man  whom  we  saw  yesterday. 
In  this  sentence,  very  is  not  intended  to  limit  old,  but  man  ;  for  it  is  not 
intended  to  say  that  he  is  a  very  old  mtin,  but  that  he  is  the  very  man 
whom  we  saw,  and  that  very  man  is  an  old  man. 

4.  When  specifying  adjectives  are  construed  with  qualifying  adjectives, 
they  are  not  general]}' separated  by  a  comma;  since  the  expression  of  a 
conjunction  is  inadmissible,  though  the  use  of  the  comma  would  be  harm- 
less, as  the  specifying  adjective  is  not  in  juxta  position  with  its  super;  as, 
"  That  old  man  has  lost  his  spectacles." 

5.  When  two  simjile  elements  are  connected  by  a  connective  they  do  not 
admit  of  a  comma;  a.s,  "  Henry  and  James  icalk  and  talk ;  but  if  the  two 
elements  thus  connected  are  complex^  a  comma  is  admissible,  and  should, 
generally,  be  used  ;  as,  "  The  religion  of  the  J>iblc,  and  the  religionof  Ma- 
homet,  are  very  different  things."  The  reason  of  this  is,  and  docs  not 'con- 
nect the  words  placed  next  to  it  as  words  ;  but  the  connection  is  between 
religion  and  religion,  modified  by  their  respective  adjective  elements. 

19 


166  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE,  AND 

6.  When,  in  the  natural  order  of  construction,  a  subordinate  clause  is 
united  to  the  leading  clause  by  a  connectiye,  which,  when  taken  alon*,  lim- 
its the  predicate  of  the  leading  clause,  no  gnomon  is  admissible  ;  as,  "  We 
shall  hear  the  news  token  the  mail  arrive*"  "The  thief  had  escaped  be- 
fore the  goods  were  missed."  But,  if  the  connective  which  joins  on  the 
subordinate  clause,  can  not  of  itself  limit  the  predicate  of  the  leading  clause, 
not  only  a  comma  may  be  used,  but  in  gome  cases  even  a  semicolon ;  as, 
"Eliza  will  improve,  if  she  study."  "  I  submitted  ;  for  it  was  vain  to  re- 
sist." But,  in  every  case  in  which  the  subordinate  clause  usurps  the  place 
of  its  super,  or  is  construed  between  the  parts  of  its  super,  it  should  be 
separated  by  a  comma,  or  commas,  as  the  case  may  be ;  as,  "  When  he 
comes,  we  shall  hear  the  news,"  or.  We  ehall,  when  he  comes,  hear  the  news. 

7.  When  a  clause  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  verb  in  the  leading  clause, 
they  should  not  be  separated  by  any  gnomon  whatever ;  as,  "  Revelation  tells 
us  hoio  xne  may  become  reconciled  to  God."  "  I  fear  /  Jiave  caught  the 
consumption." 

Semicolon. 

8.  Since  the  semicolon  connects  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence 
as  well  as  the  comma,  the  learner  will  often  find  it  difficult  to  determine 
when  to  use  the  one  or  the  other,  notwithstanding  the  rules.  He  may  be 
told  that  he  must  use  the  semicolon  when  a  longer  pause  than  the  comma 
is  necessary;  but  that  throws  but  little  light  upon  the  subject ;  for  he  may 
still  ask,  why  is  a  lon2;er  pause  necessary  ?  This  question  can  only  be 
scientifically  answered  by  telling  him  that  a  longer  pause  is  necessary  when 
the  members  are  used  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  them  emphatic. 
Members  are  emphatic  when  used  antithetically,  or  when  they  sustain  a  re- 
lation to  each  other,  &b  premise  and  conclusion.   (See  Rule  3  and  4.) 

Rem. — It  will  readily  be  pero«ived  that  most  of  the  rules  and  remarks  which  fol- 
low  are  based  upon  the  principlM  here  premised  ;  and,  that  by  studying  both  atten- 
tively, a  complete  knowledge  of  the  science  and  art  of  punctuation  may  be  obtaiaed. 

§  3.  These  gnomons,  indices,  or  points,  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  viz. :  such  as  separate  parts  of  a  sentence,  and 
those  which  separate  entire  sentences.  The  former  are  the 
Comma,  colon,  semicolon,  dash,  and  parenthesis.  The  latter 
are  the  period,  the  interrogation,  and  the  exclamation  points. 

THE    COMMA. 

§  4.  The  comma  is  used  to  indicate  the  shortest  pause — it  is 
also  used  to  denote  the  ellipsis  of  some  words. 

The  principal  uses  of  the  Comma  are  exhibited  in  the  follow- 
lowing  rules  and  remarks  : 

RULE  I. 

When  the  construction  of  a  simple  sentence  is  interrupted 
by  an  adjunct,  loosely  thrown  between  its  parts,  it  must  be 
separated  by  a  comma  before  and  after  it ;  as,  "^Law,  iWtYs 
most  confined  sense,  is  a  rule  of  human  action."* 

*It  would,  perhaps,  be  better  to  exprees  th«  rul«  thus,  When  a  sub  Is  coiiitrued  be- 
tween the  parts  of  its  super,  it  should  generally  be  separated  by  a  comma  befort  and 
after  it. 


OONSTRDCTIVB    GRAMMAR.  16T 

Rkk. — When  a  simple  sentence  is  compact,  and  iti  elements  arranged  in  the  nat- 
ural order  of,  construction,  no  point  is  needed;  as,  "Hope  is  necessary  in  every 
condition  of  life." 

RULE    II. 

When  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  proposition  is  modified 
by  a  subordinate  clause,  or  by  an  adjunct  considerably  extend- 
ed, the  logical  subject  should  be  separated  from  the  predicate 
by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  He  that  acts  wisely^  deserves  praise,"  "  The 
intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society,  serves  to  exercise  some 
of  the  noblest  virtues  of  the  human  soul." 

Rkm. — If  the  modifying  element  is  short,  the  comma  may  be  omitted;  as,  "  The 
end  of  all  things  is  at  hand." 

RULE  in. 

When,  by  transposition,  the  sub  or  inferior  member  occupies 
the  place  of  its  super,  it  may  be  separated  by  a  comma ;  as, 
*'  By  doing  good  to  others j  we  secure  the  approbation  of  our  own 
conscience." 

RULE  IV. 

The  nominative  case  independent,  and  several  of  the  interjec- 
tions, are  separated  by  commas,  since  they  are  not  elements  of 
a  sentence — consequently  not  closely  connected  ;  as,  "  3Iy  son, 
give  me  thy  heart."  "Xo,  from  their  seats,  the  mountains  leap." 

Rbm.  1. — When  the  case  independent  is  modified  by  an  adjunct,  the  comma  should 
be  placed  after  it;  as,  "  John  of  Richmond,  come  forth." 

Rkm-  2. — When  a  pronoun  is  joined  with  a  noun  i«  making  an  address,  it  should 
not  be  separated  from  the  noun  ;  as,  "  Ye  scenes  dimnely  fair,  proclaim  your  Ma- 
ker's wondrou5  pownr." 

Rbm.  3. — Those  interjections  which  express  a  very  strong  emotion  or  feeling,  ar« 
generally  followed  by  an  exclamation  point;  as,  "  Ah  !  whither  ehail  I  fly  .'" 

Rru.  4. — When  a  conjunction  introduces  an  example,  or  is  separated  by  some  in- 
tervening words  or  phrases,  from  the  member  to  which  it  belongs,  it  should  bo  sepa- 
rated by  a  comma ;  at,  "Propositions  govern  the  objective  case;  at,  I  went  to 
church."     '■■  For,  for  this  cause,  pay  ye  tribute  also." 

Rbm.  b. — An  adverb  or  perhaps  any  other  word,  thrown  oflf  from  the  member  to 
Trhieh  it  belongs,  should  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as, 

"  Soon,  borne  on  Time's  most  rapid  wing, 
Shall  death  command  you  to  his  bar." 

Rem,  6. — Words  of  others  repeated,  but  not  as  qaotations,  and  also  words  and 
phrases  repeated  for  emphasis,  should  be  separated  by  a  oommii :  ns,  "  Thus  sbalt 
thou  iay  to  the  children  of  Israel)  /  AM  hath  sent  me  unto  you."  "  Uappy,  happy 
happy,  pair." 

•  RULE    V. 

The  case  absolute  with  the  words  depending  on  it,  participles, 
and  adjectives  with  words  depending  on  them,  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas ;  as,  *'  Bonaparte 


168  AlffALTTICAL,  ILLUSTRATITE    AND 

being  banished,  peace  was  restored  to  Europe."  '^His  talents, 
formed  for  great  enterprises,  could  not  fail  to  render  him  con- 
spicuous."* 

"  Jesus,  let  all  thy  lovers  shine, 
Illustrious  as  the  sun  ; 
And,  Iright  with  'borrow' d  rays  divine, 
Their  glorious  circuit  run." 

Rem.  1. — When  a  participle  immediately  follows  the  word  on  which  it  depends, 
taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  be  omitted  before  the  participle ;  as, 
"  He  being  ridiculed,  left  the  institution." 

Rem.  2. — M' hen  a  participle  without  an  adjunct,  is  separated  from  the  word  on 
which  it  depends  in  construction,  a  comma  is  generally  inserted  before  and  after  it; 
as,  "  And  when  he  was  come  near,  he  beheld  the  city,  and  wept  over  it,  saying,  if 
thou  had£t  known,"  etc. 

RULE  VI. 

When  the  relative  is  so  closely  connected  with  its  antecedent, 
that  it  will  not  admit  of  transposition,  it  should  not  be  separa- 
ted from  it  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Henry  saw  hats  which  he  wanted." 

The  relative  may  be  separated  from  its  antecedent  by  a  comma, 

1.  When  its  antecedent  is  used  in  a  general  sense  ;  as,  "  Man, 
who  is  born  of  Avoman,  is    of  few  days,  and  full  of  trouble," 

2.  When  a  word  or  phrase  intervenes  between  it  and  its  ante- 
cedent ;  as,  "  He  gave  me  i\\e  piece  of  an  apple,  which  he  found."" 

3.  When  the  relative  clause  is  broken  by  the  introduction  of 
a  sub-member  ;  as,  "  An  old  clock,  which,  for  fifty  years,  had 
stood  in  a  farmer's  kitchen,  suddenly  stopped." 

4.  When  the  relative  clause  is  involved,  and  readily  admits 
of  transposition ;  as,  "  The  lady,  whose  house  we  occupy,  bes- 
tows many  charities." 

Rem. — In  such  examples  as  the  last,  the  comma  is  frequently  omitted  before  the 
relative. 

Observation. — Mr.  Murray  says  "  as  the  relative  is  a  connective,  it  generally 
admits  of  a  comma  before  it;"  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  relative  be- 
longs to  an  adjective  clause  which  limits  the  antecedent;  then  it  is  obvious  it  should 
not  be  separated,  except  in  such  constructions  as  are  mentioned  under  Rule  VI. 

RULE    VII. 

When  a  conjunction  is  understood  in  connecting  words  in 
the  same  construction,  its  place  should  be  supplied  by  a  comma, 
and  also  when  the  verb  of  a  simple  member  is  understood  ;  as, 
"  He  is  a  pfot  w,  Ao??  £?sf  man."  "From  law,  arises  security; 
from  security,  curiosity  ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge,"  etc. 

*Asthisrnle  consists  of  three  dlgtinft  parte,  the  learner  may  quote  that  part  which 
applies  directly  to  the  case  in  question. 


COKffiTRUOTIVB    GRAMMAR.  lOt 

RULE    VIII. 

Three  or  more  words  occurring  in  the  same  construction,  with 
their  conjunctions  expressed  or  understood,  should  all  be  sepa- 
rated by  commas  except  the  last ;  as,  "  David  was  a  brave,  wise, 
pious,  and  generous  man." 

Obsertation.— The  reason  why  the  last  word  is  not  separated,  is  becaust  it  is 
either  in  juxta  position  with  its  super,  or  closes  a  sentence. 

Rem.  1.'— If  they  are  nominatives,  writers  generally  separate  tli»  last  also  ;  m, 

"  Ah !  what  avails  •  «  ♦  • 

All  that  art,  fortune,  enterpriie,  can  bring, 
If  envs,  scorn,  remorse  ot pricU,  the  bosom  wring?" 

Rem.  2.— When  words  are  connected  in  pairs,  the  pairs  only  should  bo  separated  } 
ns,  "  Interest  and  ambition,  honor  and  shame,  friendship  and  enmity,  gratitude  and 
reve}ige,    are  the  prime  movers  in  public  tiansactions.'' 

Rem.  3.— Words  or  phrases  placed  antithetically,  should  be  separated  by  com- 
mas ;  as, 

"  Though  deep,  yet  clear;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dulU" 

Rem.  4. — When  the  conjunction  or  joins  on  a  word  which  expresses  an  altemativo 
of  words,  and  not  of  ideas,  it  should  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as, "  He  saw  ft 
largo  hctij,  or  g%ilf."  \ 

Rem.  i).— When  /jArff«c«  are  connected  by  conjunctions,  they  are  regulated  by 
the  same  rules  as  single  words. 

RULE  IX. 

When  any  tense  of  the  verb  To  Be  is  followed  by  a  verb  in 
the  infinitive  mode,  which,  by  transposition,  may  be  made  the 
nominative  case  to  it,  the  former  is  generally  separated  from 
the  latter  verb  by  a  comma;  as,  ''The  best  preservative  of 
health  is,  to  he  temperate," 

Rem.  1. — The  inf  nitive  mode  absolute  with  the  words  depending  on  it,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma;  as,  **  To  correct  the  spirit  of 
discontent,  let  us  consider  how  little  wo  deserve." 

Rem.  2. — When  the  infinitive  mode  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  used  as  tho  subject 
of  the  verb,  it  is  generally  separated  from  it  by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  To  die  for  omft 
country,  is  glorious." 

Rem.  3.— When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  is  separated  from  the  word  on  whieh 
it  depends  in  construction,  a  comma  is  generally  placed  before  it ;  as, 

"  Oh  !  for  a  glance  of  heavenly  day. 
To  take  thie  stubborn  heart  away." 

RULE   X. 

Modifying  words  and  phrases,  as,  Iwwever,  nay,  hence,  he- 
sides,  in  sliort, finally,  formerly,  etc.,  are  usually  separated  by 
a  comma  ;  as,  "  It  is,  however,  the  task  of  criticism  to  estab- 
lish principles." 


1*70  ANALTTIOAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

RULE  XL 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  whether  successive  or 
involved,  should  be  separated  by  commas ;  as,  "  The  boy  wound- 
ed the  old  bird,  and  stole  the  young  ones."  "  Providence  has, 
I  think,  displayed  a  tenderness  for  mankind." 

Rek.  1. — When  the  members  are  connsoted  by  conjunctive  adverbs,  the  comma 
Is  generally  omitted  ;  as,  "  We  heard  the  news  before  the  messenger  arrived." 

Rem.  2. — In  comparative  sentences  whose  members  are  short,  the  comma  should 
not  bs  used;  as,  "  Wisdom  is  better  than  gold." 

RULE  XIL 

The  case  in  apposition  with  its  adjunct,  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas  ;  as,  "Paul,  the  great 
apostle  of  the  Grentiles,  was  eminent  for  his  Christian  zeal." 

Rkic. — If  the  case  in  apposition  is  unaccompanied  by  any  modifying  word  or 
phrase,  no  comma  should  be  used;  as,  "  The  patriarch  Joseph  was  an  illustrious  ex- 
ample of  true  piety." 

SEMICOLON. 

§  6.  The  semicolon  (;)  requires  a  longer  pause  than  the  com- 
ma ;  the  proportion  being  as  one  to  two. 

The  semicolon  is  placed  between  the  clauses  of  a  period  which 
are  less  closely  connected  than  such  as  are  separated  by  commas. 

RULE    L 

When  the  first  division  completes  a  proposition,  so  as  to  have 
no  dependence  on  what  follows,  but  the  following  clause  has  a 
dependence  on  the  preceding,  the  two  parts  are  separated  by  a 
semicolon  ;  as,  "  The  one  has  all  that  perfection  requires,  and 
more,  but  the  excess  may  be  easily  retrenched ;  the  other  wants 
the  qualities  requisite  to  excellence." 

Rem. — In  general  then,  the  semicolon  separates  the  divisions  of  a  sentence,  when 
the  latter  division  has  a  dependence  on  the  former,  whether  the  former  has  a  de- 
pendence on  the  latter  or  not. 

RULE  II. 

When  several  members  of  a  sentence  have  a  dependence  on 
each  other,  by  means  of  a  substitute  for  the  same  principal 
word,  and  tho  clauses,  in  other  respects,  constitute  direct  pro- 
positions, the  semicolon  may  be  used  ;  as,  "  Wisdom  hath  build- 
ed  her  house ;  she  hath  hewn  out  her  seven  pillars  ;  she  hath 
killed  her  beasts ;  she  hath  mingled  her  wine  ;  she  hath  also 
furnished  her  table." — Proverbs  ix. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  OBAMMAR.  171 

RULE  III. 

A  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separate  premises  and  con- 
clusions ;  as,  "  Man  is  mortal ;  therefore  he  must  die."  "  Ccesar 
deserved  death ;  for  he  was  a  tyrant." 

RULE  IV. 

The  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separate  an   example,  in 
troduced  to  illustrate  a  rule  or  proposition  ;  as,  "  The  subject 
of  a  proposition  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  Washing^ 
ton  was  President. 

Rkm — The  above,  with  some  variation,  are  the  rules  generally  given  by  punota- 
isU,  to  direct  the  learner  to  a  proper  use  of  the  semicolon. 

It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  the  principles  on  which  the  proper  application  of 
this  point  is  based,  are  found  in  the  perception  of  a  resemblance  and  con'raat. 

When  a  new  subject  is  introduced  in  the  sub  -member,  of  which  something  limilar 
is  predicated,  to  that  of  the  super  member,  the  idea  is  that  of  resemblance;  and 
the  eemicolen  should  be  used  to  separate  the  members;  as,  "  As  wood  is  to  fire  ;  to 
ig  a  contentious  man  to  the  production  of  strife," 

But,  when  a  now  subject  is  introduced  in  (he  sub-member,  and  of  which  some- 
thing antithetical  is  affirmed,  to  what  is  aflBrmed  in  the  super-roember,  the  idea  is 
that  of  antithesis  or  contrast;  consequently  the  members  of  the  sentence  should  be 
separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  The  wisn  shall  inherit  glory;  hut  shame  shall  be 
the  proTnotion  of  fools."  Hence  the  following  rule  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient 
to  direct  the  learner  to  a  proper  application  of  this  gnomon,  or  point. 

RULE   V. 

"When  resemblanee  or  contrast  is  affirmed  in  the  sub-member, 
the  members  should  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  Heaven 
is  the  region  of  gentleness  and  friendship ;  but  hell  of  fierceness 
and  animosity."  "  The  wicked  flee  when  no  man  pursueth  ; 
hut  the  righteous  Qxe  as  bold  as  alien."  '■^  Eliza  h  beautiful; 
and  so  is  Mary.'' 

COLON. 

§  6.  The  time  generally  given  to  this  point  (:)  is  double  that 
of  the  semicolon. 

RULE  I. 

When  the  things  affirmed  in  the  latter  or  »ub-member,  are 
adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  things  mentioned  in  the  former, 
or  super-member,  the  colon  may  be  used  to  separate  the  mem- 
bers ;  as,  "  Man  is  a  great  sinner :  Christ  is  a  great  Saviour." 

RULE   IL 

When  that  -which  is  affirmed  in  the  latter,  or  sub-member,  is 
illustrative  or  confirmatory  of  what  is  affirmed  in  the  former, 


179  AWALYWOAL,   ItLUSTBATIVB    AND 

or  super-member,  the  colon  may  be  used  ;  as,  "  Man  can  not  ar- 
rive at  a  point  here,  which  he  cannot  pass  :  he  is  to  advarice  in 
the  next  world."  "  Mr.  Gray  vras  followed  by  Mr.  Erskine, 
who  spake  thus :  I  rise  to  second  the  motion  of  my  honorable 
friend." 

Rbm.  1. — When  the  eolon  is  used,  the  comneotive  is  generally  omitted. 

RxM.  2. — Our  best  writers  bave  frequently  confounded  the  colon  and  semicolon. 
The  truth  is,  the  colon  is  nearly  obso  lete  ;  consequeDtly  but  sparingly  used  by  tit 
best  writers  of  the  present  age.     (See  Dr.  Webster's  Improved  Grammar,  page  164.) 

RxH.  3. — The  practice  of  writers  is  far  from  being  uniform  with  regard  to  ihe 
point  to  be  nsed  in  introducing  direct  quotations.  Some  use  the  colon,  some  the 
aemicolon,  and  others  the  comma. 

PERIOD. 

§  7.  The  period,  or  full  point  (.),  marks  a  completion  of  the 
sense,  a  cadence  of  the  voice,  and  the  longest  pause  used  be- 
tween sentences.  It  closes  a  discourse,  also,  or  marks  the  com- 
pletion of  a  subject,  or  section. 

Bzx.  1. — And  it  is  also  used  in  abbreyiating  words,  and  is  placed  after  initialg 
when  used  alone;  as,  "  £ev.  Prest.  Crayen,  j).I)."  "  C- F.  Deema,  J).I)."  "Hon 
David  L.  Swain,  LL.D." 

THE    DASH    AND    PARENTHESIS. 

§  8.  The  dash  ( — )  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause, 
an  unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sentence  is 
'  left  unfinished ;  as,  "If  thou  art  he — but  0,  how  fallen! 

The  dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  parenthesis  j  as,  "  The 
colonists — such  is  human  nature — desired  to  burn  the  town  in  which  they 
had  been  so  wretched." 

RVk. — When  the  dash  is  used  in  conneotioD  with  another  gnomon,  or  point,! 
in<ireases  the  quantity  of  the  pause. 

§  9.  The  parenthesis  (  )  is  used  to  inclose  a  part  of  a  sentence 
not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but  in  some  way  explanatory 
of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  Consider  (and  may  the 
consideration  sink  deep  in  yout  hearts)  the  fatal  consequences 
of  a  wicked  life." 

J^Rbii. — The  paienthesis  is  now  but  little  n«ed,  tho  comiaa  and  dash  having  nearly 
rapplanted  it 

INTERROGATION    POINT. 

§  10.  The  interrogation  point  (?)  is  used,  when  a  question  is 
asked ;  as,  "  Do  brutes  reason  ?" 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  IVS 

Rbm.  1. — When  two  interrogative  members  are  closely  connected,  the  com?no  I« 
generally  used  after  the  first,  and  the  interrogative  point  at  the  close  of  the  last 
teember;  as, 

"  When  shall  I  reach  that  happy  j?Jace, 
And  be  for  ever  blest  ?" 

Keu.  2. — When  it  is  only  said  a  question  is  asked,  the  interrogative  point  should 
not  be  used  :  as,  "  The  Cyprians  asked  mc  why  I  icepi. 

Observation. — The  quantity  of  this  point  is  very  indefinite;  it  sometimes  has 
the  quantity  of  the  semicolon;  sometimes  the  colon,  and  at  others  of  the  period. 

EXCLAMATION    POINT. 

§  11.  The  exclamation  point  (!)  is  used  after  an  exclamative 
sentence  ;  as,  "  How  vain  are  all  things  here  below  !"  It  is  also 
used  after  phrases  expressive  of  emotion  ;  as,  "  0,  happiness  ! 
our  being's  end  and  aim  !" 

BRACKETS. 

§  12.  Brackets  [  ]  are  used  when  a  word  or  phrase  is  intro- 
duced for  explanation  ;  as,  "  He  [the   Professor]  explained  it." 

QUOTATION    MARKS. 

§  13.  Quotation  marks  ("  ")  are  used  to  include  a  passage 
taken  verbatim  from  some  other  author ;  as,  He  said  "  I  relin- 
quish my  claim." 

Rev. — A  quotation  contained  within  another,  shocld  be  distinguished  by  two 
single  commas  [' '];  as,  "Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim  :  '  Know  thyself.'  " 

THE    CARET. 

§  14'.  The  caret  (a)  is    used  in  writing  to  show  that  some  let- 
lies 
ter,  word,  or   phrase,  has  been  omitted  ;  as,  "  The  book^upon 
the  table," 

THE    HYPHEN. 

§  15.  The  hyphen  (-)  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound word  ;  as,  "Book.-binder."  When  placed  at  the  end  of 
a  line,  it  shoAvs  that  a  word  is  divided,  the  remaining  part  being 
carried  to  the  next  line. 

THE    ELLIPSIS. 

§  16.  The  ellipsis  ( )  is  used  to  denote   the  omission  of 

certain  letters  or  words  ;  as,  Y k,  K g." 

20 


174  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

THE    INDEX. 

§  17.  Tire  index  (gST')  points  to  some  remarkable  passage, 

THE    PARAGRAPH, 

§  18.  The  paragraph  (*|),  which  is  not  much  used  except  in 
the  Bible,  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject. 

THE    SECTION. 

§  19.  The  section  (§)  marks  the  small  divisions  of  a  book  or 
chapter. 

THE    DIURESIS. 

§  20.  The  diaeresis  ( .. )  placed  over  the  latter  of  two  vowels, 
show  that  they  do  not  form  a  diphthong  ;  as,  *'  Aerial."  The 
diaeresis  here  shows  that  this  word  is  not  to  be  pronounced  erial. 

ACCENT. 

§  21.  The  accent  is  a  character  used  to  point  out  the  accent- 
ed syllable  of  a  word,  whether  long  or  short.  Our  ancestors 
borrowed  three  of  these  characters  from  the  Greek  language, 
viz.,  the  acute  ('),  the  grave  {^),  and  the  circumflex  (a).  The 
acute  points  out  the  rise  of  voice ;  the  grave,  the  fall ;  and  the 
circumflex  unites  both  of  these  in  one,  and  marks  an  undulation 
of  the  voice.  The  breve  (^  is  placed  over  an  accented  syllable 
in  poetry ;  and  the  dash  ( — )  is  used  over  accented  syllables  ;  as, 

"  With  rav  |  ished  ears, 
Th6  mon  j  arch  hears." 

THE     APOSTROPHE. 

§22.  The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  as  a  sign  of  the  possessive 
case,  and  also  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  in  the  syncopa- 
tion of  words ;  as,  "  This  is  John's  book."  "  JE'en  now  where 
Alpine  solitudes  ascend." 

THE    BRACE. 

§  23,  The  brace  (f)  is  used  to  connect  or  point  out  the  three 
lines  of  poetry  which  form  a  triplet.  It  is  also  used  to  connect 
•everal  words  with  one  common  term  ;  as, 

"James  Anderson,       "j 

"W.  L.  Smith,  y Managers." 

^'  Dr.  W.  F.  Connolly,  j 


CONSTRUCTIVE  ORAMMAR.  l76 

§  24.  Three  asterisks  (***)  show  that  some  indelicate  express- 
ion has  been  omitted,  or  that  there  is  some  defect  in  the  man- 
uscript. 

§  25.  The  asterisk  (*),  the  obelisk  (f),  the  double-dagger  (;):), 
and  the  p*i-allels  (||),  are  onlj  used  as  foot-notes,  or  references 
to  the  margin. 


CHAPTEE    XXXIII, 

FALSE    PUNCTUATION. 

Rem. — In  punctuating  the  sentences  in  the  following  exercises,  the  pupils  should 
not  only  place  the  proper  points  which  are  omitted,  but,  also,  remove  those  which 
have  been  improperly  inserted.  But  one  Model  is  given,  which,  if  attentively  stud- 
ied, will,  perhaps,  be  a  sufl5cicnt  guide  to  direct  in  all  cases — at  least,  so  far  as  it  res- 
pects pointing  out  the  error,  and  applying  the  appropriate  rule  or  remark. 

Model.  "  The  tutor  who  instructs  me  in  the  science  of  grammar  is  emi- 
nent, as  a  teach«r." 

A  comma  should  be  inserted  before  the  predicate  is  emintnt,  separating 
it  Irom  the  logical  subject,  according  to  Rule  II.  The  comma  inserted  be- 
fore as,  is  improperly  used ;  because  as  is  a  preposition,  used  in  the  sense 
ot  in  tlie  character  of,  and,  as  such,  it  shows  the  relation  between  the  words 
eminent  and  teacher,  excluding  any  point  whatever. 

The  philosophic  student  maj'  inquire  for  the  reason  of  the  comma  before 
the  predicate.  The  predicate,  as  well  as  the  subject,  is  rwinv&Wy  emphatic; 
consequently  it  requires  some  distinction  in  utterance ;  but,  as  it  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  subject  by  an  intervening  elause,  a  short  pause  is  not  only 
requisite  to  attract  the  attention,  but,  also,  to  enable  the  speaker  or  reader 
to  utter  it  with  the.  force  which  its  importance,  in  the  sentence,  demands. 

Exercises. 

The  man,  of  virtue  and  honor  will  be  trusted.  "We  are  fearfully,  and 
wonderfully  made.  The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he  gains  his  own  ap- 
probation the  fool  when  he  gains  the  applause  of  those  about  him.  With 
gratitude  I  remember  his  kindness.  In  prosperity  he  was  too  much  elated 
in  adversity  too  despondent. 

The  turf  shall  be  my  fragrant  shrine 
My  temple  Lord  that  arch  of  thine 
My,  censer's  breath  the  mountain  airs 
And  silent  thoughts  my  only  prayers. 

Idleness  brings  forward  and  nourishes  many  bad  passions.  A  Hoan  loving 
serving  and  adoring  his  Creator.  Jared  Hurton  having  gone  to  sea  bis 
wife,  desires  the  prayers  of  this  church.    The  butterfly  child  of  the  sum- 


176  ANALYTICAL,   JLLUSTRA'TIVS      AND 

mer  flutters,  in  the  sun.     The  statesman  Jeflferson,  wrote  the  Declaration 
of  Independence. 

See,  how  intemperance  spreads 
Along  our  course  it  rolls 
Upon  its  death-like  bosom  bears, 
Millions  of  precious  souls ! 

All  mankind  compose  one  family  assembled  under  the  eye  of  one  common 
Father.    Turn  from  your  evil,  ways  0  house  of  Israel  1 

All  tyrants  deserve  death 
Caesar  was  a  tyrant 
Therefore  he  deserved  death. 

Straws  swim  on  the  surface  but  pearls  lie  at  the  bottom.  You  have  stolen 
that  poor  old  man's  purse.  Yonder  stands  a  house  of  correction.  The 
greatest  suffering  that  we  can  endure  is  to  be  condemned,  by  our  own  con~ 
science.  To  expect  happiness  without  the  practice  of  virtue  is  unreason- 
able. Study  to  acquire  a  habit  of  thinking,  no  study  is  more  important- 
Canst  thou  expect  thou,  betrayer  of  innocence  to  escape  the  hand  of  ven 
geance.     How  delightful,  is  the  cempany  of  our  friends  ? 

^  I  can  but  perish  if  I  go 

I  am  resolved  to  try 
For  if  I  stay  away  I  know 
I  must  for  ever  die. 

If  the  spring  put  forth  no  flowers     \ 

In  summer,  there  will  be  no  beauty  >- 

And  in  autumn  no  fruit.  } 

There  generous  fruits  that  never  fail 

On  trees  imuortal  gt-ow 
There  i-ocks  and  hills  and  brooks  and  vales 

With  milk  and  honey  flow. 

Your  cofamittee  would  suggest  some  improvement  in  the  seats  as  they 
have  been  informed  that  some  seats  were  occupied  by  boys  without  backs.* 

We  have  been  informed  that  Mr,  A' of  0  has  committed  suicide  by 

Mr.  B hanging  himself. 

There  is  a  lady  in  our  land 
Hath  tvrenty  nails  upon  each  hand 
Five  and  twenty  on  hands  and  feet 
This  is  true  and  no  deceit. 

I  saw  a  per^xock  with  a  long  fiery  tail 

I  saw  a  blazing  comet  pour  down  hail 

I  saw  a  black  cloud  with,  ivy  compassed  round 

I  saw  a  shrubby  oak  crawl  upon  the  ground 

I  saw  a  little  pismire  swallow  up  a  whale 

1  saw  the  brackish  sea  Brim  full  of  ale 

'Attentioa  muBt  br  paid  to  conetrnctlen  as  w«ll  ai  poactoatlon. 


CONSTRUCTIVE     GRAMMAR.  177 

I  saw  a  Venice  glass  Full  fifteen  feet  deep 
I  saw  a  well  full  of  man'a  tears  that  weep 
I  saw  a  man's  eyes  All  on  a  flame  of  fire 
I  saw  a  house  As  big  as  the  moon  and  higher 
I  saw  the  sun  At  midnight 
I  saw  the  man  that  saw  this  dreadful  sight. 

THE  USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capital  letters; 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence. 

2.  Proper  names,  and  titles  of  office  or  honor ;  as,  George  Washington, 
General  Lee,  Judge  Story,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the  Ohio,  Main  Street. 

Rem. — The  name  of  an  object  personified,  may  bo  used  as  a  proper  name,  and 
should  then  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  '*  Gentle  Spring." 

3.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns ;  as,  Amerioan,  English,  Roman. 

4.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity ;  as,  "  God,  the  Almighty.''^  "  The  Su- 
fveme  Being."     "  The  Most  Uigh.^''  ^ 

5.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  (^rect  quotation,  when  the  quotation  would  ferm 
a  complete  sentence  of  itself;  as,  "  Christ  says,  '  My  yoke  is  easy.'  " 

7.  Every  noun  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  oi  books;  as,  "Pope's 
Essay  on  Man." 

8.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  0,  are  written  in  capitals. 

Note.— Other  words,  when  they  are  of  parJicular  importance,  may  begin  with 
capitals. 

Exercises. 

Where  should  capitals  he  used  in  the  following  exercises? 

thou  shalt  not  kill,     thou  shalt  not  steal,     honesty  is  the  best  policy. 

the  soldiers  of  general  Washington  loved  him  as  a  father,  socrates,  plato, 
aristotle,  and  pythagoras  are  the  names  of  distinguished  greciau  philoso- 
phers. 

the  first  female  said  my  name  is  pleasure. 

he  has  read  a  great  many  german  and  french  works. 

spencer,  shakspeare,  and  milton  are  the  names  of  the  greatest  english 
poets. 

remember  thy  creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth. 

up  to  the  throne  of  god,  is  borne 
the  voice  of  praise  at  car. 3-  morn, 
and  he  accepts  the  punctual  hymn, 
sung  as  the  light  of  day- grows  dim. 

remember  the  ancient  maxim,  know  thyself,  solomon  says,  a  wise  man 
feareth  and  dcparteth  from  evil,  he  has  read  milton's  paradise  lost,  and 
paradise  regained,  ho  consulted  Johnson's  dictionary  of  the  english  lan- 
guage, and  bosworth's  anglo-saxon  dictionar}'.  if  i  can  find  the  work,  i 
will  send  it  to  you.     hear,  0  maa !  0  excellent  Scipio  1" — Butler't  Grammar. 

[Note. — To  exercise  the  pupil  further  in  punctuation,  and  the  use  of  capitals,  the 
teacher  may  select  sentences  and  extracts  from  some  of  the  standard  aathors.] 


176  AUALTTICAL,  ILLUBTEATIVE    AND 

CHAPTER     XXXIV. 

PEOSODT. 

§  1.  Prosody  treats  of  the  true  pronunciation  of  words,  and 
the  modulation  of  the  voice  in  the  utterance  of  sentences  ; 
hence,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  it  embraces  all  the  laws  of 
elocution.  But,  as  elocution  has  become  a  separate  and  dis- 
tinct science,  but  little  will  be  said  with  regard  to  the  utterance 
of  sentences. 

§  2.  Prosody  may  be  divided  into  two  parts. 

1.  It  treats  of  the  true  pronunciation  of  words,  comprising  accent,  quan- 
tity, emphasis,  pause,  and  tone. 

2.  The  laws  of  versificatioa. 

Accent  is  the  elevation  of  the  voice  on  some  particular  syllable,  so  as  to 
distinguish  it  from  all  syllables  in  the  werd. 

Every  word  of  more  than  ona  syllable,  must  h'Sive  one  of  its  syllables 
accsnted, 

"Words  of  many  syllables  frequently  have,  besides  the  primary,  a  w«ak 
accent  called  the  secondary. 

No  special  rule  can  be  given  for  the  placing  of  the  accent,  that  will  be 
available, — the  best  one  that  can  be  given  is  this  very  general  one : 

In  pronouncing  the  w^ord,  place  the  accent  on  that  syllable  which  makes 
it  most  easy  for  the  organs  to  utter ;  for  that  which  is  most  easily  uttered 
is  generally  most  agreeable  to  the  ear.  It  may  be  observed,  however,  that 
words  ending  in  tion  and  sion  generally,  have  the  last  syllable  but  one  ac- 
cented ;  as,  relation  and  confusion  ;  and  that  words  ending  in  ity  have  the 
last  syllable  but  two  accented ;  as,  duraljility.  ' 

Quantity  is  the  duration  of  the  voice  on  a  syllable,  or  the  time  occupied 
in  uttering  it.     Syllables  are  generally  regarded  as  long  or  short 

A  syllable  is  said  to  be  long,  when  the  accent  falls  upon  a  vowel,  and 
short  when  it  falls  upon  a  consonant ;  as,  halcer,  banter.  It  should,  how- 
ever be  distinctly  borne  in  mind  that  the  vowel  of  a  syllable  is  frequently 
long  when  not  under  the  accent. 

The  time  occupied  in  uttering  a  long  syllable,  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
double  that  of  a  short  one. 

Vowels  are  generally  divided  into  long  and  short ;  but  it  should  be  ob- 
served that  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  is  not  the  only  element  of  distinction ; 
for  those  vowels  called  short,  differ  in  quality  as  well  as  quantity.  It 
should  be  further  remarked  that  those  syllables  called  long  in  poetry,  do 
not  depend  upon  the  length  of  the  vowel,  but,  upon  the  accentual  force 
with  which  they  are  uttered ;  for  syllables  frequently,  containing  the  short- 
est vowels  in  the  language,  are  called  long  in  poetic  construction. 

By  Emphasis  is  meant  a  stronger  and  fuller  sound  of  the  voice,  by  which 
we  distinguish  some  word,  or  words  on  which  we  wish  to  lay  particular 
stress,  and  to  show  how  they  aifect  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

In  uttering  an  emphatic  word,  a  greater  stress  of  voice  must,  necessarily, 
be  laid  upon  some  one  syllable  than  the  others.  This  force  generally  coin- 
cides with  accent,  though  sometimes  it  differs  from  it,  and  when  this  is 
the  case,  accent  must  yield  to  emphasis;  as,  "He  must  increase ;  but  I 
must  (decrease." 


OONSTBUCTIVE     ORAMMAB.  179 

There  are  two  kinds  of  emphasis, — ihc  Jirst  or  natural, — the  last  or  ac- 
cidental. 

The.7?rsi  or  natural  emphasis  belongs  to  all  nouns,  verbs,  participles, 
and  adjectives,  and  it  requires  but  a  very  slight  elevation  of  the  voice. 

The  last  or  accidental  emphasis,  is  laid  on  a  word  when  it  has  some 
particular  meaning,  and  when  the  force  of  the  sentence  depends  upon  it; 
this,  therefore,  requires  a  considerable  elevation  of  the  voice. 

Pause-s,  or  liests,  in  speaking  or  reading,  are  a  total  cessation  of  the 
voice  during  a  perceptible,  and,  in  many  cases,  a  measurable  space  of  time. 
Besides  those  pauses,  cnWcd  sentential,  indicated  by  the  comma,  colon,  etc., 
which  have  been  already  noticed — a  considerable  pause  is  required  in 
speaking,  called  the  oratorical  pause  ;  as,  *'  There  was  a  time  when  War- 
wick more  desired,  and  more  deserved  it."  More  in  the  latter  member  of 
the  sentence,  although  followed  by  no  sentential  pause,  requires  a  pause  of 
considerable  length  in  speaking. 

By  2'ones  is  meant  the  modulation  of  the  voice  or  the  variation'of  the 
notes  of  speech  to  express  sentiments  of  a  different  nature  ;  for  instance, 
grate  or  solemn  subjects  should  be  uttered  in  a  low  tone  and  slow  time. 
\Yhile,  on  the  contrary,  ga}'-  and  didatic  ones  should  be  spoken  in  elevated 
tones  and  quick  time. 


CHAPTER     XXXV. 

VERSIFICATION. 


§  1.  Poetry  is  metrical  composition,  or  it  is  the  language  of 
passion,  or  of  enlived  imagination. 

§  2.  Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  of 
syllables,  according  to  particuiar  rules,  so  as  to  produce  melody. 

3fetrc,  in  English,  consists  in  the  regular  return  of  the  ac- 
cent at  regular  intervals.  Accent,  then,  is  essential  to  verse  ; 
but  Rhyme  is  not,  since  there  may  be  a  regular  return  of  ac- 
cent, or  syllables  similarly  affected,  without  the  similarity  of 
sound  which  produces  rhyme. 

Two  or  more  syllables  grouped  together  by  accent,  constitute 
afoot  or  measure.  It  is  called  a  measure  because,  by  its  aid, 
the  voice  steps  along,  as  it  were,  through  the  verse  in  a  meas- 
ured pace.  When  two  syllables  are  thus  grouped  together,  it 
is  called  dissyllabic  measure ;  as, 

With  rdv  I  ished  Sars, 
The  mon  |  5,rch  hears. 

But,  when  three  syllables  are  thus  grouped  together,  it  ia 
called  tryssyllahic  measure  ;  as, 

fftm  man  |  firch  6f  all  |  fsiirvey. 


180  ANAlTTiCAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE   AND 

§  3.  Several  measures,  or  feet,  properly  arranged,  form  a 
line  or  verse.  -A  verse,  then,  is  a  certain  number  of  connected 
feet  forming  one  line. 

§  4.  A  Semistieh  is  half  a  verse. 

§  5.  A  Couplet  or  Distich  consists  of  two  verses  ;  a  Triplet 
of  three. 

When  the  measure  of  the  verse  is  complete,  the  verse  is  called  AcataUctic, 
When  it  is  deficient  or  wants  a  syllable,  it  is  called  Gatalectic. 
When  it  contains  a  redundant  syllable  or  a  syllable  too  much,  it  is  called 
Eypermeter,  or  Hypercatalectic. 

§  6.  A  Stanza  is  a  combination  of  several  verses,  varying  in 
number,  according  to  the  poet's  fancy,  and  constituting  a  reg- 
ular division  of  a  poem,  or  song. 

§  7.  When  the  first  and  third  lines  of  a  stanza  contain  four 
Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  second  and  fourth  lines  three  feet 
each,  it  is  Oommon  Metre. 

§  8.  When  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  of  a  stanza 
contain  three  Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  third  line  four,  it  is 
Short  Metre. 

§  9.  When  all  the  lines  of  a  stanza  contain  four  Iambic  feet 
each,  the  metre  is  Long. 

§  10.  Blank  verse  is  metrical  composition  without  rhyme  as, 

"  Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 
Had,  in  'her  sober  livery,  all  things  cZa^." 

§  11.  Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  between  the  last  syl- 
lables of  different  lines,  as  in  the  following  lines  : 

"  How  do  thy  mercies  close  me  round  ! 
For  ever  be  thy  name  adored  ; 
I  blush  Ib  all  things  to  abound  ; 
The  servant  is  above  his  lord." 

Rhyme  is  €\'<h^x  perfect  ax  defective.  Rhyme  \&  perfect  when  the  vowel, 
or  tonic  sounds  of  the  rhyming  syllables,  are  alike,  and,  if  followed  by  con- 
sonant sounds,  they  must  be  similar. 

Rhyme  may  be  defective  in  three  ways, 

First.  When  the  consonants  which  precede  the  tonics  in  the  rhyming 
syllables  are  alilie;  for  this  may  cause  the  words  to  be  identical. 

Second.  It  is  defective  when  the  tonic  sounds  are  dissimilar. 

Third.  When  the  closing  consonant  sounds  are  unlike.  This  will  be 
better  understood  by  analyzing  a  few  rhyming  syllables. 

ANALYSIS    OF    RHYMING    SYLLABLES. 

The  syllables  round  and  hound,  in  the  above  example,  as  rhyming  syl-- 
lables,  consist  of  three  parts,  viz.,  the  consonants  which  precede  the  vow- 
els, or  tonics,  the  toyii^s,  and  the  consonants  which  fallow.     The  preceding 


CONSTRUOTrV'E  GnAMMAR.  181 

conBonants  r  and  5,  being  unlike,  are  as  they  should  bo ;  and,  as  iha  fol- 
lowing consonants  are  alike,  as  well  as  the  tonics,  the  rhyme  is  perfect 
Though,  in  the  syllables  dored  and  lord,  the  preceding  consonants  are  un- 
like, and  the  following  consonants  are  alike,  yet  the  tonics  do  not  harmon- 
ize in  sound;  for  o,  in  adored,  has  i\iQ  first  or  long  sound  of  o,  and  o,  in 
lord,  haa  the  third  sound  of  a  ;  hence  the  rhyme  is  defective. 

Some  rhyming  syllables  which  appear  perfect  to  the  eye,  are,  neverthe- 
less, defectWe  to" the  car  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  hrcathc,  wreath.  Though, 
in  the«c  syllables,  the  preceding  consonants  are  unlike,  and  the  tonic  sounds 
are  alike,  "yet  ih  has  different  sounds  in  the  two  words  ;  in  the  former  it 
has  the  vocsl  sound,  and,  in  the  latter,  the  aspirate  sound.  This  defect  can 
only  be  detected  by  the  ear.  Some  persons  attempt  to  remedy  such  defects 
by  sacrificing  correct  pronunciation  to  sound;  as, 

"  The  witch,  she  held  the  hair  in  her  hand  ; 
The  red  flame  blazed  high, 
And  ronnd  about  the  chaldron  stout, 
They  danced  right  marvMy. 

This  practice  should  not,  however,  bo  imitated  ;  for,  if  verse  is  defective 
in  rhyme,  the  poet  alone  is  accountable. 

SINGLE,    DOUBLE,   AND   TREBLE   RHYME. 

§  12.  When  the  accented  syllabic  closes  the  verse,  the  rhyme 
is  single  ;  as, 

"  Could  I  j  rehearse  |  the  talcs  |  of  w5, 
The  tears  |  which  thou  |  hast  caused  |  to  flow." 

§  13.  AVhen  the  accented  syllable  is  followed  by  another 
syllable,  the  rhyme  is  double  ;  as, 

"  Softly  I  sweet  in  |  Lydian  |  meXsures, 
Soon  he  1  soothed  his  j  soul  to  |  pleasur(5s.'' 

§  14.  The  rhyme  is  trehle  when  the  accented  syllable  is  fol- 
lowed by  two  others  ;  as, 

"  Wearing  a  |  way  in  his  |  yduthfulnCss 
Loveliness,  |  beauty,  and  j  truthfulness." 

SCANNING. 

§  15.  Scanning  averse  is  dividing  it  into  its  component  feet, 
and  properly  placing  the  accent. 

§  16.  All  the  feet  used  in  poetry  arc  reducible  to  eight 
kinds — four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows  : 

DISSTLLABLE.  TKISSYLLABLE. 

A  Trochee,  —     ^  A  Dactyl,  _    -^     ^ 

An  Iambus,  ^-^     —  An  Amphibrach,    ■— -     —     — 

21 


182  ANALYTICAL,    1LLU8TRA>TIVB,  AND 

A  Spondee,  —    — '  A  Tribrach,  ^^    ^^    >^ 

^  Phyrric,  '— '    ^— '  An  Anapaest,  v^    vw    — 

The  Iambus,  Trochee,  afid  Anapaest  may  be  denominated  principal  feet  * 
&s  pieces  of  poetry  are  chiefly,  and  may  be  wholly,  formed  of  them.  The 
others  may  be  termed  secondary  f«et^  because  their  object  is  to  diversify  the 
numbers,  and  to  improve  the  verse. 

IAMBIC    VERSE. 

In  Iambic  verse  the  second  syllable  of  every  foot  is  accented, 
and  the  first  unaccented. 

1.  Iambic  of  9ne  foot,  or  Monometeri 

Fr5m  m5 
They  flee. 

2.  Iambic  of  two  feet,  or  Dirmter  ; 

T5  mS  I  the  rCse, 
No  longer  glows. 

3.  Iambic  of  three  feet,  or  Trimeter  ; 

In  pis,  I  ces  far  |  8r  near, 
Or  famous,  or  obscure. 

4.  Iambic  of  four  feet,  or  Tetrameter  ; 

H5w  sleep  |  thS  brave  |  wh(5  sink  |  tS  rest, 
With  all  their  country's  honors  blest. 

b.  Iambic  cf  five  feet,  or  Pentameter; 

On  rif  j  t^d  r5cks,  |  thS   drag  )  Sn's  late  (  SbSdes, 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  tjbe  bulrush  nods. 

6.  Iambic  of  six  feet,  or  Hexameter; 

F5r  thou  I  S,rt  but  j  5f  diist ;  |  bS  hum  |  ble  and  |  bS  wise. 

Note — The  lambio  Pentameter  is  called  the  Heroic.  The  Iambic  Hexameter  is 
call.ed  the  Alexandrine. 

The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  admitted  into  Heroic  rhyme,  and  when 
used  sparingly  and  with  judgment,  occasions  an  agreeable  variety : 

ThS  seas  {  sh^ll  waste,  |  thS  skies  |  in  smoke  |  dgeSy, 

Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away ; 

But  fixed  his  word,  his  saving  power  remains  ; 

Thy  realms  |  fQrev  |  er  lasts,  |  thy  own  |  MgssI  )  ^h  reigns. 

*Tho  Daotyuo  is,  by  some  writere,  cUaeed  among  the  pbinoital  fkit. 


CONSTRUCTIVB    GRAMMAR.  *  183 

7.  Iambic  of  seven  feet,  or  Heptameter  : 

*ThHlof  I  tYhtU  I  thEhttm  |  blE  lawn  |  withc^unt  |  Iees  beau  )  Ues  shine; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

It  is  commonly  divided  into  two  lines ;  thus. 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn. 

With  countless  beauties  shine  ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 

Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

§  19.  The  Elegiac  stanza  consists  of  four  Pentameter  lines 
rhyming  alternately  ;  as, 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day  ; 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea  ; 
The  plowman  homewards  plods  his  weary  xjoay  ; 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

§  20.  The  Spenserian  stanza  is  a  stanza  consisting  of  nine 
lines ;  the  first  eight  are  Heroics,  and  the  last  is  an  Alexan- 
drine ;  as, 

It  hath  been,  through  all  ages,  ever  seen. 

That  with  the  prize  of  arms  and  chivalrie 
The  prize  of  beauty  still  hath  joined  been, 

And  that  for  reason's  special  privatie ; 
For  either  doth  on  other  much  rely. 

For  he  meseems  most  fit  the  fair  to  serve 
That  can  her  best  defend  from  villanie, 

And  she  most  fit  his  service  doth  deserve. 
The  fairest  is,  and,  from  her  faith,  will  never  swerve. 

Spenser. 

§  21.  All  the  varieties  of  the  Iambic,  from  the  Monometerto 
the  Heptameter,  admit  of  an  additional  short  syllable ;  as, 

1.  Disdain  |  ing. 

2.  Upon  I  a  moun  |  tain. 

8.  When  on — her  Mak  I  er's  bos  |  om. 

4.  But  hail,  |  thou  god  |  dees  sage  I  and  ho  |  It. 

6.  What  slen  |  der  youth  |  bedtwed  |  with  liq  |  uid  o  |  dor. 

6.  Whose  front  |  can  brave  |  the  storm,  |  but  will  I  not  rear  |  the  flow  (  ir. 

7.  To  scat  I  ter  o'er  |  his  path  |  of  flame  |  bright  hues  |  of  gem  |  like 

show  I  Ers. 

Rem. — Though  tho  Iambic  Pentameter  is  called  Ileroio,  it  is  not  oonfinedto  this 
measure ;  for  it  sometimoa  extends  to  eight  feet,  and,  in  soma  instances,  even  to 
nine.    (See  Dr.  Webster's  Improved  Grammar,  page  158,) 


*Our  supply  of  accented  (type)  letters  being  exhausted  aCthii  point,  we  are  com- 
pelled to  omit  their  ubo,  and  substitute  shall  capital  Tetters  for  the  breve  letter*, 
or  vBteaented  syllable*,  tnd  italie  letters  for  t.he  aoo«nt«d  ones,  Friktbr. 


184  ANALVTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

§22.  TROCHAIC    VERSE. 

1,  Trochaic  Monometer '. 


2.  Trochaic  Dimeter  \ 


3.  Trochaic  Trimeter: 


Changing, 
Ranging, 


FancY  I  viewing, 
Joys  ensuing. 


Go  whEre  ]  glorv  [  waits  thcE, 
But  where  fame  elates  thee. 


4.  Trochaic  Tetrameter'. 


Round  A  I  \\o\y  I  calm  dif  |  fusing, 
Love  of  peace  and  holy  musing. 


5.  Trochaic  Pentameter : 

AW  thAt  I  walk  on  |  foot  or  |  ride  in  |  chariots, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.  Trochaic  Hexameter'. 

On  A  I  mountAin  |  stretched  bs  |  neatb  a  |  hoary  |  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

§  23.  In  Trochaic  verse   the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  odd 
syllable  ;  in  Iambic  verse,  upon  the  even. 

§  24,  The  Trochaic  admits  of  an  additional  long  syllable  : 

Where  the  |  wood  is  |  waving  |  green  and  |  high, 
Fawns  and  |  Dryads  |  watch  the  j  starry  |  sky. 

Remark  that  every  species  of  Trochaic  verse,  admits  of  an  additional 
long  syllable  ;  as, 

Lord  WE  I  come  bE  |  fore  theE  |  now, 
At  thr  I  feet  we  |  httmbly  |  bow, 

§25.  ANAPiESTIC    VERSE. 

1.  Anapcestic  Motwrneter : 

On  thB  land. 
Now  I  stand ; 
From  the  sea, 
Now  I'm  free. 

2.  Anapcestic  Dimeter : 

On  A  plain,  |  as  hE  strode. 
By  the  hermit's  abode. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  185 

3.  Anapcestic  Trimeter : 

Oh  yB  woods,  |  sprsad  your  branch  |  es  Apace ; 

To  your  inmost  recesses  I  fly ; 
I  would  hide  with  the  beast  of  the  chase ; 

I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 

4.  Anapcestic  Tetrameter : 

At  thE  close  I  of  thE  day  |  whEn  thE  ham  |  kt  is  still ; 
And  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulncss  prove. 

In  Anapaestic  verso,  the  accent  falls  on  every  third  syllable.    Tho  first 
foot  of  Anapaestic  verse  may  be  an  Iambus : 

And  mor  |  tAls  the  sweets  |  of  ferget  |  folnEss  prove. 

The  AnapjTStic  Dimetor  and  Tetrameter  sometimes  admit  of  an  additional  short 
syllable,  which  gives  a  pleasing  variety  to  the  verso ;  as, 

On  thE  road  |  by  the  vol  |  Isy, 

As  he  wan  |  dered  lamen  |  ting ; 
To  the  green  I  of  the  for  |  Est, 

lie  returned  |  him  repen  |  ting. 

Tho  Tetrameter : 

On  thE  warm  |  chEEk  of  youth  |  smiles  And  ro  |  ses  Are  blen  |  ding. 

§26.  DACTYLIC    VERSE. 

1.  Dactylic  Mcnometer : 

Ohwrfullv, 
Tearfully. 

5.  Dactylic  Bimeter :  ^ 

Free  from  Am  |  lEtv, 
Care  and  sat  |  iety. 

i.  Dactylic  Trimeter  : 

Wearing  a  |  WAy  ra  his  |  youthfulDESS, 
Loveliness,  beautr^,  and  truthfulness. 

4.  Dactylic  Tetrameter  : 

Boys  will  An  |  ticipate  |  lavish  And  [  dissipAte, 
All  that  your  busy  pate  hoarded  with  care. 

Though  the  Dactylic  seldom  extends  beyond  four  feet  to  the  verso,  yet 
the  following  is  an  example  of  Dactylic  Hexameter : 

OvET  thE  I  vrtllEy,  with  )  speed  like  thE  |  wind,   aU   ths  |  steeds  WEre  a  | 
galloping,  f 

It  should  bo  further  remarked  that  Dactylic  verse  does  not  generally  ter- 
»«inate  with  a  Dactyl ;  but  generally  takes  a  long  syllable. 


18tf  ANALYTICAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE,    AND 

1.  Dactylic  Dimeter  with  an  additional  long  syllable : 

CoverEd  with  |  snow  was  thE  |  vale ; 
Loud  was  the  |  shriek  of  the  |  gale. 

2.  Dactylic  Trimeter:  " 

Ttme  it  hAS  |  post  And  thE  |  ladr  is  pale, 
Pale  AS  thE  I  lilv  thAt  |  lolls  on  thE  |  gale. 

8.  Daeti^c  Tetrameter : 

Glad  WAS  our  |  meeting :  thy  [  gltttEnng  |  bosom  I  |  hEard, 
Beating  on  |  mine  like  thE  |  heart  of  a  timorous  |  bird. 

Re^.— When  the  Dactylic  extends  beyond  four  feet  to  the  lino,  it  still  admits  of 
an  additional  long  syllable.    (See  Hart's  (irammar,  page  190.) 

Dactylic  verso  sometimes  terminates  alternately  with  a  Trochee  and  aa 
additional  long  syllable  : 

Brightist  And  |  host  of  thE  |  sons  of  thE  |  morning. 
Dawn  on  our  |  darknESS  And  |  lend  us  thme  |  aid. 

MIXED    VERSES. 

§  27.  The  Iambic  is  admissible  in  any  place  of  the  line  ;  as^ 

I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey, 
My  right  there  is  none  to  dispute. 

§  28.  The  Trochee  is  graceful  in  the  third  and  fourth  places 
of  a  line,  when  it  creates  a  correspondence  between  the  sound 
and  sense.     It  is  sometimes  found  in  the  first  place  of  the  line. 

Eve,  rightly  call'd  mothEr  of  all  mankind. 

Envy  commands  a  secret  band, 

§  29.  The  Spondee  consists  of  two  syllables,  both  accented, 
and  is  admissible  in  any  place  of  the  line,  but  it  is  more  graceful 
after  a  Trochee. 

Load  the  ta^ll  ba.rJi,  and  launch  into  the  main. 

§  80.  The  Pyrrhic  is  a  foot  of  two  short  syllables ;  it  is 
graceful  in  the  first  and  fourth,  and  is  admissible  in  the  second 
and  third  places  : 

Nor  m  the  helpless  orphan  dread  a  foe. 

But  this  foot  is  most  graceful  in  the  fourth  place : 

To  farthest  shores,  the  ambrosial  spirit  flies, 

Sweet  to  the  world,  and  grat^?  to  the  Rkies.  ' 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  187 

§  81.  The  Amphibrach  is  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  the  first 
and  third  short,  and  the  second  long.  It  is  used  in  Heroic 
verse,  only  when  we  take  the  liberty  to  add  a  short  syllable  to 
a  line. 

The  piece  you  say  is  incorrect,  wAy  Hlce  \t, 
I'm  all  submission,  what  you'd  have  it  maJce  it. 

§  32.  The  Tribrach  is  a  foot  of  three  syllables,  all  sRrt ;  and 
it  may  be  used  in  the  third  and  fourth  places. 

And  thunders  down  impetuous  to  the  plain. 

§  33.  The  Dactyl  is  used  principally  in  the  first  place  in  the 
line. 

J^uriou*  he  spoke ;  the  angry  chief  replied, 

§  34,  The  Amapoest  is  admissible  in  any  place  of  the  line. 

Bfifore  I  All  iexn  \  pins  tho  up  \  right  heart  1  And  pure. 
The  Dactyl  and  the  Spondee  are  sometimes  used  alternately,  as, 

Green  m'  th'fi  |  wild-wood  \  proudly   ths  J  tall  troo  |  looks  on  ths  |  brown 
pUin. 

In  the  following  stanza,  the  Anapaest  and  Iambic  are  beautifully  blended 

I  come,  I  I  come  1  |  yE  hAvc  called  |  mE  long ; 

I  come  I  o'or  the  moun  |  t8,ins  with  light  |  and  song! 

Ye  may  trace  my  steps  o'er  the  wakening  earth  ; 

By  the  winds  that  tells  of  the  violet's  birth, 

By  the  primrose  stars  of  the  shadowy  grass, 

By  the  green  leaves  opening  as  I  pass. 

Rem.— In  short  pieces,  tho  Amphibrach  is  occasionally  iotrodKoed  rs  tha  prinol 
pal  foot ,-  as, 

But  vainlv  |  thou  warrEst ; 

For  this  is  |  Alone  in 

Thy  power  to  declare. 

That  in  the  dim  forest 

Thou  heard'st  a  low  moaning, 

And  saw'st  a  bright  lady  surpassingly  fair. 

This  foot  is  not  frequently  employed  in  grave  or  solemn  subjects. 

RULES    FOR    READING    VERSE. 

§  35.  With  respect  to  reading  verse,  we  can  give  but  a  few 
simple  rules ;  but,  perhaps,  if  these  are  well  understood,  they 
may  be  useful. 

1.  Verse,  like  prose,  to  l^e  read  well,  must  be  thoroughly  understood. 


188  ANALYTTOAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE    AKt) 

2.  Words  should  be  prctiounced  as  in  prose  and  conversation  ;  for  rmdl- 
ing  is  but  rehearsing  another's  conversation. 

3.  The  emphasis  and  cadence  should  be  observed  as  in  prose.  The  voice- 
should  bound  from  accent  to  accent,  and  no  stress  should  be  laid  on  little- 
unimportant  wor(Js,  nor  on  weak  syllables. 

4.  The  sentential  pauses  should  be  observed  as  in  prose  ;  these  are  noc 
affected  by  the  kind  of  -writing,  being  entirely  regulated  by  the  sense. 
But,  as  the  cesural  and  final  are  designed  to  increase  the  melody  of  the 
verse,  tliPstrictest  attention  must  be  paid  to  them  in  readin  g.  They  mark 
a  suspension  of  the  voice  without  rising  or  falling. 

Rem.  1. — There  are  two  musical  pauses — Cesural  aad  Final. 
Reu.  2. — The  Cesural  pause  is  not  essential   to   vorse,  for   the   shorter  kinds  of 
measure  are  without  it ;  but,  when  used,  it  divides  the  verse  into  two  parts. 

The  Cesural  pause  may  be  placed  in  any  part  of  the  verse ;  but  has  the 
finest  effect  upon  the  melody  when  placed  after  the  second  or  third  foot,  or 
inthe  middle  of  the  third  : 

0  say  what  stranger  cause,  yet  unexplored, 
Could  make  a  gentle  belle,  reject  a  lord  ? 

Rem.  3. — The  I'inal  pause  marks  the  close  of  a  line  or  verse,  whether  there  i  as 
cause  in  the  sense  or  not. 

CONTRACTIONS    AND    ADDITIONS. 

§  36.  When  a  word  is  contracted  in  its  first  letters,  the  fig- 
ure is  called  Aphoeresis ;  as,  'gai/isty  'garhy  'neath,  etc.,  for 
against,  began,  beneath,  etc. 

When  a  word  is  contracted  in  its  middle  letters,  it  is  called 
Syncope  ;  as,  MurmWing,  for  murmuring. 

When  a  word  is  contracted  in  its  final  letters,  it  is  called 
Apocope  ;  as,  Tho\  th\  for  though,  the. 

When  an  expletive  syllable  is  prefixed  to  a  word,  it  is  called 
Prosthesis  ;  as,  Adoivn  for  down. 

When  an  expletive  syllable  is  annexed  to  a  word,  it  is  called 
Paragoge  ;  as,  Withoutew  for  ivithout,  dear?/  for  dear. 

Rem.  1. — Oar  best  and  most  tasty  speakers  pronounce  the  "  ed  "  in  most  adjec- 
tives as  a  distinct  syllable;  as,  "  A  leara-eti  divine."  "  The  belov-ed  disciple."  "  A 
wick-ei  action."  But  the  "  frf  "  in  verbs  is  almost  invariably  contracted  in  utter- 
ancej  hence  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  in  contracting  such  verbs,  is  not  really  neces- 
sary;  for  the  speaker  who  would  venture  to  pronounce  as  in  the  following,  "  Ho 
-walk'-ed  to  the  church,"  "  John  learn-cd  his  lessoa,"  would  run  the  risk  of  beiag 
laid  upon  the  shelf  as  obsolete. 

Rem.  2.— When  a  verb  in  the  prese'nt  tense  end-s  in  t  or  d,  the  ed  is  pronouaced 
as  a  separate  syllable,  because  ed  will  not  coalesce  in  sound  with  these  letters;  as, 
"  He  contended  for  victory."    "  Th  ey  were  delightad  with  the  exhibition." 

Rem.  3. — When  a  regular  verb  in  the  present  tense  terminates  in  an  atonic  which 
will  not  coalesce  in  sound  with  ed,  the  ed  is  generally  contracted^  into  t,  in  utter- 
ance ;  as  Talk,  talked— contracted  talkt.  Some  writers  contract  learned  into  leavni; 
this,  howev«r,  is  evidently  erroneous,  for  the  aub-tonics  n  and  d  readily  coalesce  in 
sound. 

Rem.  4. — When  the  tonic  e  occurs  between  the  sub-tonics  v  and  n,  it  is  generally 
dropped  in  utterance,  as  the  sub-tonic  n  readily  unjtes  in  sound  with  ti;as,  Heaven, 


OOSS-mVCTLVK    OKAMMAn.  189 

elovcn,  rlvon,  clovoB,  etc.  Honce,  as  tho  »•  is  droppod  iu  utterance,  and  p.  di:-syl- 
lablo  becomes  a  monosyllable,  tho  use  of  tho  apostrophe  in  cutting  off  e  from  the 
sy''vble  to  which  it  belongs,  is  unnecessary. 

The  same  may  bo  prodiciitcd  of  tho  syllable  rn  or  on,  following  the  atonica  k  and 
t ;  as,  Forsaken,  overtaken,  reckon,  etc.,  pronounood  forsak'n,  oyortak'n,  reck'n,  oto.; 
forgotten,  rotten,  cotton,  pronounced  for^ott'n,  rott'n,  eott'n. 

ANALYSIS     0¥    VERSE. 

§  37.  Tho  verse  should  not  only  be  resolved  into  its  compo- 
nent feet,  and  tho  accent  properly  placed;  but  tho  rhymino-  syl- 
lables should,  also,  be  critically  analyzed;  and,  if  defective,  let 
the  defect  be  pointed  out.  Since  a  Model  has  been  already  given 
for  tlie  analysis  of  rhyming  syllables,  none  need  be  given  here. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  ANALYZING  AND  KEADING. 

Iloro  I'll  raise  mine  Ebcnczer, 

Hither,  by  thy  hclj),  IVc  come ; 
And  I  hope,  by  thy  good  pleasure, 

Safely  to  arrive  at  home. 
Jesus  sought  nie  when  a  stranger, 

Wand'ring  from  tho  fold  of  God ; 
IIo,  to  rescue  me  from  danger, 

Interposed  his  precious  blood. 

All  worldly  shapes  .sliall  melt  in  gloom, 

The  sun  himself  must  die 
Before  tho  mortal  shall  assume 

Its  immortality. 
I  saw  a  vision  in  my  sleep. 
That  gave  my  spirit  strength  to  sweep 

Adown  the  gulf  of  time  ; 
I  saw  the  last  of  human  mold, 
That  .shall  creation's  death  behold, 
As  Adam  saw  her  prime. 

The  sun's  eye  had  a  s]tk\y  glare  ; 

Tho  earth  with  ago  was  wan  ; 
Tho  skeletons  of  nations  wore 

Around  that  lonely  n\an. 
Some  had  expired  in  fight ;  the  brands 
Still  rusted  in  their  bony  hands ; 

In  plague  and  famine,  some  ; 
Eartli's  cities  had  no  sound  nor  troad. 
And  ships  were  drifting  with  tho  dead, 

To  shores  where  all  were  dumb. 


Can  a  bosom  so  gentle  remain 
Unmoved  when  her  Corj'don  sighs  ^  I 
Will  a  nymph  that  is  fond  nf  tho  plains, 
These  [)lains  and  tiu  '        dG.spise? 


190  ASALYllOAL,   ILLUSTRATIVE    A3SD 

Dear  regions  of  silence  and  shade, 
Soft  scenes  of  cententment  aad  ease, 
Where  I  could  have  pleasantly  stay'd, 
If  aught  in  her  absence  could  please. 


Look  not  on  wine  when  it  ia  red, 
Or,  into  danger,  you'll  be  led ; 
For,  when  it  moves  itself  aright, 
Then,  like  a  serpent,  it  doth  bite. 
Tho'  it  may  make  you  dance  and  sing. 
Yet,  like  an  adder  it  will  sting ; 
Its  poison,  through  your  veins,  will  roll, 
And  darkness  overwhelm  your  soul. 


Bright  were  thine   eyes  as  the  stars,  and  their  glances  were  radiant  as 

gleams, 
Falling  from  the  eyes  of  the  angels,  when  singing  by  Eden's  purpurea! 

streams ; 
Happy,  as  seraphs,  were  we  ;  for  we  wandered  alone, 
Trembling  With  passionate  thrills  where  the  twilight  had  flown. 


The  melancholy  days  hav6  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 
Of  wailing  winds  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sere  ; 
The  robin  and  the  wren  have  flown,  and,  from  the  shrub,  the  jay  ; 
And,  from  the  wood  top,  caws  the  crow  through  all  the  gloomy  day 


"  I  am  ready  to  go,"  cried  the  plump  young  wren, 
"  From  the  hateful  homes  of  these  northern  men ; 
For  my  throat  is  sore,  and  my  feet  are  blue ; 
I  fear  I  have  caught  the  consumption,  too." 


Envy  commands  a  secret  band, 
With  sword  and  poison  in  her  hand  ; 
Around  her  haggard  eye-balls  roll, 
A  thousand  fiends  possess  her  souL 
Her  troops  advance  with  silent  tread, 
And  stab  the  hero  in  his  bed  ; 
Or  shoot  with  wild,  malignant  lio, 
And  female  honors  fade  or  die. 


Since  conjugal  passion 

Has  come  into  fashion, 
And  marriage  so  blest  on  the  throne  is, 

Like  Venus,  I'll  shine. 

Be  fond  and  be  fine, 
And  Sir  Trusty  shall  be  my  Adonis. 


She  went  from  the  opera,  park,  assembly,  play, 
To  morning  walks  and  prayers,  three  times  a  day, 


CON8TRIKJTIVR     GRAMMAR.  XOJ. 

To  pass  her  time  'twiit  reading  and  bolwia, 

To  muso  and  spill  her  solitary  tea  ; 

Or,  o'er  cold  coffee,  trifle  with  the  spoon, 

Count  the  slow  clock,  and  dine  exact  at  noon, 

Divert  her  mind  with  pictures  in  the  fire. 

Hum  half  a  tune,  tell  stories  to  the  squire, 

Up  to  the  godly  garret  after  seven. 

There  starve  and  pray  ;  for  that's  the  way  to  heaven. 


One  fatal  remembrance — one  sorrow  that  throws 
Its  bleak  shade  alike  e'er  our  joys  and  our  woes — 
To  which  life  nothing  darker  nor  brighter  can  bring, 
For  which  joy  has  no  balm,  and  affection  no  sting. 


No  breath  of  air  to  break  the  wave 
That  rolls  below  the  Athenian's  grave, 
That  tomb,  which  gleaming  o'er  the  cliff, 
First  greets  the  homeward  veering  skiff, 
High  o'er  the  land  he  saved  in  vain  ; 
When  shall  such  a  hero  live  again  ? 


For  see,  ah  I  see,  while  yet  her  ways 

With  doubtful  step  I  tread, 
A  hostile  world  its  terrors  raise, 

Its  snares  delusive  spread. 
0,  how  shall  I,  with  heart  prepared. 

Those  terrors  learn  t»  meet  ? 
How,  from  the  thousand  snares,  to  guard 

My  inexperienced  feet  ? 


Time  it  haa  past,  and  the  lady  is  palo, — 
Pale  as  the  lilly  that  lolls  on  the  gale ; 
Weary  and  worn  she>  has  watched  for  years. 
Keeping  her  grief  ever  green  with  her  tears  ; 
Years  will  she  tarry,  for  cold  is  the  clay, 
Fett'ring  the  form  of  her  Everard  Gray. 


Cold  on  his  cradle,  the  dew-drops  are  shining ; 
Low  lies  his  head  with  the  beasts  of  the  stall ; 
Angels  adore  him  in  slumber  reclining, 
Maker,  and  Monarch,  and  Saviour  of  all. 


How  happy  are  they 
Who  their  Saviour  obey, 

And  have  laid  up  their  treasures  above  I 
Tongue  cannot  express 
The  sweet  comforts  and  peace 

Of  a  soul  in  its  earliest  love." 


192  AKALYTiOAl.,    i-LLllSX&Al'IVE      AND 

How  happy  ft  the  pUf  rim's  lot ; 

How  free  iVom  erery  ansioug  thought, 

From  worldly  hope  and  fear  ! 
Confined  to  neither  court  nor  cell, 
His  Boul  disdains  on  earth  to  dwell, 

Ha  only  sojourns  here. 


Hold  my  right  hand,  Almijjhty !  and  me  teach 
To  strike  the  lyr«,  but  seldom  struck,  to  notes 
Harmonious  with  the  morning  stars,  and  pare 
As  those  by  sainted  bards  and  angels  sung, 
Which  wake  the  echoes  of  eternity — 
That  fools  may  hear  and  tremble,  and  the  wise 
Instructed  listen,  of  ages  yet  to  come. 


See  truth,  love,  and  mercy,  in  triumph  descending, 
And  nature  all  glowing  in  Eden's  Urst  bloom. 

On  the  cold  cheek  of  death,  smiles  and  roses  are  blending. 
And  beauty  immortal  awakes  from  the  tomb. 


Life  let  us  cherish 

While  yet  the  taper  glows, 
And  the  fres^h  flow'ret, 

Pluck  ere  it  close. 


Here's  the  bow'r  she  loved  so  mucli. 

And  here's  the  tree  she  planted ; 
Here's  the  harp  she  used  to  touch. 

Oh  !  how  that  touch  enchanted  ! 
Roses  now  unheeded  sigh, 

Where's  the  hand  to  wreathe  them  * 
Songs  around  neglected  lie, 

Where's  the  lips  to  breathe  them  ? 


My  bark  is  upon  the  deep,  Iotc, 
My  comrades  impatient  call. 

Awake,  while  the  fairies  sleep,  love, 
Awako  thee  !  more  bright  than  all. 


Woodman,  spate  that  tree ! 

Touch  not  a  single  bough, 
In  youth  it  sheltered  me, 

And  I'll  protect  it  now ; 
'Twas  my  fathers  hand 

That  placed  it  near  his  cot ; 
There,  woodman,  let  it  stand, 

Thy  hand  shall  harm  it  not. 


CONtiTRUCTIVK    GKAMMAR.  1^3 

Toll  not  the  bell  of  death  for  mc, 

When  I  am  dead  ; 
Strew  iiottho  flow'ry  wreath  o'er  me, 

On  my  cold  bed. 


Since  thou  wast  man  and  mortal, 

And  art  by  death  laid  low, 
'Tis  well  that  thou  hast  fallen 

On  yon  lofty  Mountain's  brow. 

That  mount  will  love  to  praise  thee 
As  its  greatest,  truest  friend, 

And  will  proudly  speak  thy  glory 
Till  time  itself  shall  end. 

With  its  high,  careering  summit. 

Making  lofty  seem  but  low, 
'Tis  an  emblem  of  that  greatness 

That  thy  deeds  around  thco  throw. 

The  green  and  fadeless  ivy 

That  wove  thy  shroud  of  shade, 

Is  a  token  that  thy  memory 
Shall  never — never  fade. 

Those  bright  and  stainless  waters 

In  which  thy  body  lay, 
Are  an  emblem  of  the  tribute 

That  unnumbered  hearts  shall  pay. 

And  the  hoarse  and  jarring  thunder 
AVhich  around  the  mountain  brayed, 

Seemed  the  wild  alarm  of  nature, 
Telling  all  her  son  was  dead. 

Thou  didst  grasp  a  sprig  of  laurel 

And  held  it  e'en  in  death — 
An  emblem  that  no  fortune 

Shall  rob  thee  of  that  wreath. 

That  wreath  which  is  immortal 

Like  thine  own  stupendous  mind — 

A  wreath  of  love  and  honor 
That  thy  countlcf^a  friends  have  twined. 


Softly  sweet  in  Lydian  measures. 
Soon  ho  soothed  his  soul  to  pleasures ; 
War,  he  sung,  is  toil  and  trouble  ; 
Honor,  but  an  empty  bubble ; 
Never  ending,  still  bcginnhig, 
Fighting  gtill,  and  still  destroying. 


ig]|  AJffALTTICAI.,  ILLUSTBATIVB    A.NfD 

0,  may  thy  powerful  word 
Inspire  a  feeble  worm, 

To  rush  into  thy  kingdom,  L«rd, 
And  taks  it  as  by  storm  ? 


O  may  we  all  improve 
The  grace  already  given, 

To  seize  the  crown  of  perfect  love, 
And  scale  the  mount  of  heaven  ! 


Loving  Jesus,  gentle  Lamb, 
In  thy  gracious  hands  I  am  ; 
Make  me,  Saviour,  what  thou  art^ 
Live  thyself  within  my  heart. 

I  thall  then  show  forth  thy  praise, 
Serve  thee  all  my  happy  days, 
Then  the  world  shall  always  see 
Christ,  the  holy  child,  in  me. 


I  have  found  out  a  gift  for  my  fair, 
I  have  found  where  the  wood  pigeons  breed  ; 
Yet  let  me  that  plunder  forbear ; 
She  will  say  'twas  a  barbarous  deed, 
For,  he  ne'er  could  prove  true,  she  averr'd, 
Who  could  rob  a  poor  bird  of  her  young  ; 
And  I  lov'd  her  the  more  when  I  heard 
Such  tenderness  fall  from  her  tongue. 


Heaven,  from  all  creatures,  hides  the  book  of  fate, 
All  but  the  page  prescribed,  their  present  state ; 
From  brutes  what  men,  from  men  what  spirits  know, 
Or  who  could  suffer  being  here  below  ? 
The  lamb  thy  riot  dooms  to  bleed  to-day, 
Had  he  thy  reason,  would  skip  and  play  ? 
Pleas'd  to  the  last,  he  crops  the  flowr'y  food, 
And  licks  the  hand  juit  rais'd  to  shed  his  blood. 


Like  mountains,  the  billows  tremendously  swell. 

In  vain  the  lost  wretch  calls  on  Mary  to  save. 

Unseen  hands  of  spirits  are  ringing  his  knell, 

And  the  death-angel  flaps  his  broad  wing  o'er  the  wave. 


Perhaps,  in  this  neglected  spot,  is  laid 
Some  heart  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire  ; 
Hands  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayed, 
Or  waked  to  ecstasy  the  living  lyre. 


OONdTBUCnVE     (HtAltMi.a.      ,  1V5 

Then  peace  shall  dis»rm  war's  dark  brow  of  its  frown, 
And  roses  shall  bloom  on  the  soldier's  rude  grave, 

Then  honor  shall  weave  of  the  laurel  a  crown 
That  beauty  shall  bind  on  the  brow  of  the  bravs. 


Ye  may  trace  my  steps  o'er  the  wakening  eartfc, 
By  the  winds  which  toll  of  the  violet's  birth, 
By  the  primrose  stars  of  the  shadow  grass, 
By  the  green  leaves  opening  as  I  pass. 


For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  pray, 
This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned. 

Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 
Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingering  look  behind  ? 


Eternal  Power,  whose  high  abode 
Becomes  the  grandeur  of  a  God  ; 
Infinite  lengths,  beyond  the  bounds 
Where  the  stars  revolve  their  little  roundi. 

Thee,  while  the  first  archangel  sings. 
He  hides  his  face  behind  his  wings  ; 
And  ranks  of  shining  thrones  around. 
Fall  worshipping,  and  spread  the  ground. 


THE    BETTER    LAND. 

There  is  aland  where  sorrows  cease, 
And  pleasures  always  flow, — 

A  land  of  life,  and  joy,  and  peace, 
And  thither  would  I  go. 

There  is  a  land  as  bright  as  day, 
^0  clouds  obscure  the  sky  ; 

And  theje  all  tears  are  wiped  away  ; 
For  people  never  die. 

There  is  a  land  of  friendship  sweet, 
No  friends  unfaithful  prove  ; 

There  spicy  gales  the  senses  greet ; 
For  all  that  land  is  love. 

There  is  a  land  of  endless  day, 

Succeeded  by  no  night; 
There  is  a  gem  of  purest  ray. 

And  ecencs  divinely  bright. 


196  ANALYTICAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE     AND 

There  is  a  land  where  Christians  dwell,. 

Enthroned  in  purest  bliss, 
And  where  they  never  say  farewell ; 

There  is  no  land  like  this. 

There  is  a  land  where  Jesus  reigns 
Through  one  eternal  day. 

And  angels  sing  in  sweetest  strains ; 
There  would  I  over  stay. 


CHAPTER     XXXVI. 

EHETORIC    OR    ORATORY. 

§  1.  Rhetoric  or  Oratory  is  the  art  of  speaking  or  wri- 
ting justly,  methodically,  and  elegantly  upon  any  subject,  so 
as  to  instruct,  persuade,  and  please.  The  speech  made  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  this  art  is  called  an  Oration,  and  the  speak- 
er an  Orator.  The  -word  is  from  a  Greek  word — Khctorike — 
of  the  same  signification.  A  good  orator  must  be  eminent  for 
invention,  disposition,  memory,  gesture,  and  elocution.  A  reg- 
ulaT  oration  consists  of  five  parts, — the  Exordium,  Narration, 
Confirmation,  Refutation,  and  Peroration. 

§2.  The  Exordium  or  Preamble  is  the  beginning  of  the  dis- 
course, serving  to  gain  the  good  opinion  of  his  hearers,  to  se- 
cure their  attention,  and  to  give  them  a  general  idea  of  the 
subject.     It  ought  to  be  clear,  modest,  and  not  too  prolix. 

§  3.  The  Narration  ov  lUstory  is  the  recital  of  the  facts  as 
they  happened,  or  as  they  are  supposed  to  have  happened.     It 
ought  to  be  perspicuous,  probable,  concise,  and,   on  most  sub- 
jects, entertaining. 

§  4.  The  Confirmation  is  proving,  by  argument,  example,  or 
authority,  the  truths  of  the  proposition  advanced  in  the  Nar- 
ration. 

§  5.  The  Refutation  or  Confutation  is  the  destroying  of  the 
arguments  of  our  antagonist,  by  denying  what  is  apparently 
false,  detecting  some  flaw  in  the  reasoning,  or  showing  the  in- 
validity of  the  proof.     It  should  be  sharp  and  lively. 

§  6.  The  Peroration  or  Conclusion  is  the  recapitulation  of 
the  principal  arguments,  concisely  summed  up,  with  new  force 
and  weight,  in  order  to  exoite  feelings  of  hatred  or  pity. 


C0JR8TRUGT1VE  GRAMMAR. 


19: 


CHAPTER    XXXVII. 

FIGURES    OF    SPEECH. 

§  1  Figurative  Language  consists  in  some  departure  from 
simplicity  of  expression.  When  we  say  "  A  good  man  enjoys 
comfort  in  the  midst  of  adversity,"  the  language  is  simple  ;  but, 
when  we  say,  "  To  the  upright  there  ariseth  light  m  darkness, 
the  lancruage  is  figurative.  Figures,  when  well,  chosen  and 
sparingly  used,  not  only  give  a  pleasing  variety,  but  they 
greatly  enrich  and  vivify  language. 

The  following  are  the  principal  figures :  Personification, 
Apostrophe,  Hyperbole,  Simile,  Metaphor,  Ikony,  Metony- 
my, Climax,  Synecdoche,  Interrogation,  and  Exclamation. 

§  2.  F ersonifcation.— Tho  application  of  the  properties  of 
living  creatures  to  inanimate  ones,  is  the  basis  of  this  figure  ; 
as,  ''  The  earth  thirsts  for  rain."  "  The  wilderness  shall  re- 
joice." 

•*  Cheered  with  the  grateful  smell,  old  Ocean  smiles." 

§  3.  Apostrophe  is  nearly  allied  to  Personification.  It  con- 
sists in  bestowing  an  ideal  presence  upon  the  real,  either  dead 
or  absent.  We  address  them  as  if  they  stood  before  us  listen- 
ing^ to  the  overfiow  of  our  passions  ;  as,  "  Retire,  my  love,  for 
it?s  night,  and  the  dark  winds  sigh  in  your  hair.  Retire  t© 
the  hall  of  my  feast,  and  think  of  the  times  that  are  past ;  for 
I  will  not  return  till  the  storm  of  war  is  gone." — Ossian. 

"Weep  on  the  rocks  of  the  roaring  winds,  0  maid  of  Inis- 
tore,  bend  tliy  fair  head  over  the  Avaves,  thou  fairer  than  tho 
Ghost  of  the  hills  when  it  moves  in  a  'sun-beam  at  noon  over 
the  silence  of  Morven,  Ho  is  fallen  ;  thy  youth  is  low  :  pale 
beneath  the  sword  of  Cuchellcn." — Ossian. 

§  4.  Hyperbole  consists  in  magnifying  or  diminishing  an  ob- 
ject beyond  reality. 

"  ITyperbole  soars  high,  or  creeps  too  slow, 
Exceeds  the  truth,  things  womderful  to  show." 

"  He  bowed  tho  skies."  "  A  snail  don't  crawl  so  f^low." 
This  figure  should  be  sparingly  used,  especially  in  grave  dis- 
course. , 

§  5.  A  Simile  is  a  comparison  by  which  anything  is  illustra- 
ted. This  figure,  equally  familiar  and  beautiful,  discovers  re- 
semblances, real  or  imaginary,  between  actions  which,  iu  their 
general  nature,  are  dissimilar  ;  as, 

St 


198  ANALYTICAL,  ILLUSTRATIVE    AND 

"  The  music  of  Caryl  -was  like  the  memory  of  joys  that  are 
past,  pleasant  and  mournful  to  the  soul." — Ossian. 

§  6.  A  Metaphor  is  the  putting  of  the  name  of  one  thing  for 
that  of  another,  so  as  to  comprise  a  Simile  in  one  word  ;  or,  it 
is  the  application  of  a  word.to  a  use  to  which,  in  its  original 
import,  it  cannot  be  put ;  as, 

"  Wallace  was  a  thunder-bolt  of  war, 
Firigal  the  gale  of  spring." 

"  Like  a-mighty  pillar  doth  this  one  man  uphold  the  State," — 
this  is  a  simile.  "  He  is  the  sole  pillar  of  this  ponderous 
State  " — this  a  Metaphor. 

§  7.  An  Allegory  is  a  continued  Metaphor ;  or  it  is  the  rep- 
resentative of  one  thing  by  another  that  resembles  it,  and  that 
is  made  to  stand  for  it. 

"Venus  grows  cold  without  Ceres  and  Bacchus," — i.  e.,  love 
grows  cold  without  bread  and  wine. 

There  cannot  be  a  more  beautiful  and  correct  Allegory  than 
that  which  is  found  in  the  80th  Psalm.  "  Thou  hast  brought 
a  vine  out  of  Egypt ;  thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen  and  plant- 
ed ;  thou  preparedst  room  for  it ;  and  didst  cause  it  to  take 
deep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land,"  etc. 

§  8.  Irony  is  a  mode  of  speech  in  which  the  meaning  is  con- 
trary to  the  words  ;  as,  "  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god  ;  either  he 
is  talking  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on  a  journey ;  or  perad- 
v.enture  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked,"  1  Kings,  xviii.,  27. 

§  9.  A  Climax  is  a  figure  by  which  the  sentence  gradually 
rises. 

"A  Climax,  'tis  said,  by  gradation  ascends, 
They  were  my  countrymen,  my  neighbors,  my  friends." 

§  10.  Metonymy  puts  the  cause  for  the  eifect ;  thejeffect  for 
the  cause  ;  the  container  for  the  contained  ;  or  the  sign  for  the 
thing  signified  :  as,  "We  are  reading  Virgil" — Virgil's  work. 
"Gray  hairs — old  age — should  be  respected."  "The  kettle 
boils" — the  water  boils,  "He  addressed  the  chair" — the 
person  in  the  chair.  "  She  assumed  the  sceptre  " — the  royal 
authority. 

§  11.  A  Synecdoche  puts  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the  whole 
for  a  part ;  as, 

"  While  o'er  the  rooi— home — loud  thunders  break." 
• 
§  12.  Interrogation. — The  natural  use  of  interrogations  is 
to  ask  questions.     But,  when  the  passions  are  moved  by  some 
exciting  cause,  men  frequently  throw   into  the  form  of  ques- 


COSSTRUCTIVB    ORAMMAR.  199 


tions  what  they  would  affirm  most  positively  ;  as,  "  Shall  not 
the  judge  of  all  the  earth  do  right  ?  Hath  he  not  said  it  ? 
And  shall  he  not  do  ?  Hath  he  spoken  it  ?  And  shall  he  not 
make  it  good  ? — Bible. 

§  13.  Exclamation. — This  figure  consists  in  short  passionate 
forms  of  expression,  in  which  the  speaker  would  pour  forth  the 
intensity  of  his  emotions  or  feelings,  in  order  to  excite  similar 
emotions  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers  ;  as,  "  Oh  !  the  horrors  of 
cold-blooded  murder  !"  "  How  vain  are  all  things  here  below  !" 
Judgment  and  taste  must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  this  figure  ; 
for,  if  used  too  frequently  and  on  unsuitable  occasions,  it  pro- 
duces a  contrary  effect  to  that  intended  by  the  speaker  or 
writer. 

Pupils  may  be  profitably  exorcised  in  converting  figurative  l.iHguago  into  plain, 
and  vice  versa  ;  as,  "  The  sun  looked  out  upon  the  ijlad  waters,  Ihoy  expanded  their 
wiuRS,  and  soared  into  the  atmosphere."  Changed—"  The  sun  shone  upon  the  pla- 
cid waters,  thoy  became  vapor  and  rose  into  the  air."  "  Give,  mo  a  cup  half  full." 
Chmigcd—"  Orivo  mo  half  a  cup."  "The  pot  boils" — ''The  liquor  in  the  pot 
boils." 


CHAPTER     XXXVIII. 

FIGURES    OP    SYNTAX. 

§  1.  A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  ordinary  construction  of  words. 

§  2.  The  figures  of  syntax  are  five,  viz. :  Ellipsis,  Pleon- 
asm, Syllbpsls,  Enallaqe,  and  Hyperbaton. 

§  B.  The  Ellipsis  is  the  intentional  omission  of  some  word, 
phrase,  or  clause,  which  is  necessary  to  the  construction,  but 
unnecessary  to  the  sense.  In  such  cases,  the  omitted  element 
is  said  to  be  understood ;  because  it  is  perceived  by  the  wmi, 
and  not  by  the  senses  ;  as,  "  She  is  fairer  than  her  sister,"  i.  e., 
than  her  sister  is  fair.  Is  Q.nd  fair  arc  not  seen  nor  heard  ;  but 
they  are  perceived  by  the  mind. 

§  4.  Pleonasm  is  the  introduction  of  superfluous  words,  or 
words  which  are  unnecessary  to  the  construction  or  sense  ;  con- 
sequently only  admissible  for  the  sake  of  emphasis ;  as,  "  Jlim 
that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear." 

§  5.  Syllepsis  is  the  agreement  formed  according  to  the 
figurative  sense  of  a  word,  or  the  mental  conception  of  the 
thinors  spoken  of,  and  not  according  to  the  literal  or  common 
sdusa  of  the  term  ;  it  is,  therefore,  in  general,  connected  with 


200  Alf  A*¥!KCAL,     H/LUSTRA^ITB,  !.??© 

some  figure  of  rhetoric ;  as,  "  The  Word  was  made  flesh,  and 
dwelt  among  us  ;  and  we  beheld  his  glory." 

§  6.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  or  of  one 
modification,  for  another,  or  one  tense  for  another.  But,  as 
the  practice  leads  to  solecism,  and,  if,  indulged  in,  would  su- 
persede all  rules  of  grammar  whatever,  it  can  only  be  admitted 
to  a  very  limited  extent ;  as,  "  They  fall  successive,  and  suc- 
cessive rise."  "  Than  whom  none  higher  sat,"  t.  «.,  Than 
he,  etc. 

I  7.  Htperbaton  is  the  tranposition  of  words  ;  as,  "  Whom, 
therefore,  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you." 
"  He  wanders  earth  around."  This  figure  is  extensively  used 
in  poetry,  and,  when  judiciously  employed,  it  confers  variety, 
strength,  and  vivacity  to  prose  composition,  .Ambiguity  must, 
however,  be  guarded  against. 


CHAPTER    XXXIX. 

COMPOSITION. 
A   FEW  SUGGESTIONS    TO   STUDENTS. 

You  bave  now,  it  is  presumed,  my  young  friends,  acquired  considerable 
knowledge  of  the  analysis  and  construction  of  sentences,  and  of  the  science 
of  language  generally;  but  you  must  not  suppose  that  your  task  is  done. 
Here  a  new  and  fertile  field  opens  before  you,  and  invites  you  to  cultivate 
it.  Here  you  may  bring  into  practical  operation  all  the  knowledge  whicii 
you  m»y  have  acquired,  and  concentrate  it  upon  a  single  subject.  Here  you 
have  full  scope  for  the  exercise  of  all  your  skill  in  arranging  the  elements 
of  a  sentence,  and  in  making  each  sentence  take  its  proper  position  in  the 
regular  thread  of  discourse  or  composition. 

In  your  first  attempts  at  composition,  you  need  not  be  surprised,  if  you 
should  feel  the  want  of  ideas ;  and  also,  if  you  should  find  some  diffiulty 
in  selecting  appropriate  words  to  express  the  ideas  which  you  may  already 
possess  ;  but  be  not  discouraged  ;  for  [indtlstry  and  untiring  ptrsevtranee 
will  sooner  or  later  crown  your  eftbrts  with  success. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  writing  composition  is,  to  obtain  ideas ;  the 
second,  is  the  proper  expression  of  the  ideas  when  obtained.  To  acquire 
ideas,  it  is  necessary  to  cultivate  habits  of  observation;  to  use  the  eyes  not 
only  in  noticing  entire  objects,  but  also  their  different  jjarts  ;  to  consider 
their  qualities,  uses,  operations,  and  effects  ;  together  with  their  relation  to 
other  things. 

The  mind  employed  in  such  exercises  acquires  materials  for  its  own  ope- 
rations, and  thoughts  and  ideas  arise,  as  it  wer«,  sp»nteReously.  ^eePai^ 
ker's  Aid  to  coiBpositionf. 


Q»««T»UCTIVB  CHIAMMAR.  20l 

In  the  selection  of  words  to  express  Ideas,  care  must  be  taken  to  eelect 
«uch  words  as  will  express  them  clearly,  forcibly,  and  elegantly.  To  do 
this,  standard  works  ol  the  best  authors  should  be  carefully  studied,  and 
the  best  dictionaries  consulted. 

The  limits  of  this  work  will  not  allow  us  to  enter  into  the  inTestigation 
of  the  qualities  of  style,    A  few  plain  directions  only  can  be  giren. 

1.  Acquire  as  thorough  knowledge  as  possible  of  your  subject,  before  at- 
tempting to  write  upon  it. 

2.  Do  not  use  any  one's  language,  but  your  own,  except  you  wish  to 
make  a  quotation. 

3.  Do  not  mingle  plain  and  rhetorical  language  in  the  same  sentence. 

4.  Do  not  attempt  to  write  after  the  subject  is  exhausted. 

5.  Do  not  ba  anxious  to  select  subjects  of  a  general  nature ;  for  they 
are  generally  tho  most  barren,  especially  to  beginner.':. 

6.  Study  to  express  yourselves  grannnaticallj^  and  clearly. 

7.  Do  not  forget  to  punctuate  your  compositions  accuratelv. 

8.  Let  one  leading  idea  predominate  throughout  the  periocf. 

■9.  Guard  against  the  use  of  foreign  or  inappropriate  words,  also  against 
low  and  vulgar  expressions. 

10.  Let  your  words  be  pure,  that  is,  such  afl  belong  exclusively  to  th« 
English  language. 


ar9  regard- 


RiH. — Those  words  of  foreign  origin  which  havo  becotno  Angliciied, 
ed  as  beloDging  to  tbo  language. 

11.  Construe  those  elements  which  are  closely  allied,  as  near  to  each 
other  as  possibia 

Rbm. — Any  inattention  to  this  rule  will  hardly  fail  to  lead  to  ambijuity,  or  to  a 
total  perversion  of  the  meaning  intended.  Not  long  since,  a  temperance  leccurer 
said,  *'  I  remember  having  read  of  an  old  lady  who  died  in  tho  newspaper,  because 
her  husband  lay  drunk  at  a  neighboring  still-house."  Now  he  did  not  intend  to 
convey  the  idea  that  tho  hereine  of  his  story  really  died  in  a  newspaper  ;  yet  the 
language  clearly  expresses  It.  This  mistake  might  have  been  prevented  by  a  dif- 
ferent collocation  of  the  elements.  Thus  :  "I  remember  having  read  in  a  newspa- 
per of  an  old  lady  who  died,"  etc. 

DIFFERENT    KINDS    OP    COMPOSITION. 

All  compositions,  whether  spoken  or  written,  are  cither  prose  or  poetry. 
Prose  compositions  are  those  in  Khich  the  thoughts  and  sentiments  are 
expressed  in  common  and  ordinary  language. 

Poetic  composition  is  expressed  in  regular  numbers,  and  so  arranged  as 
to  please  the  car  and  captivate  the  imagination. 

The  different  kinds  into  which  prose  compositions  may  be  divided,  are, 
Narratives,  Letters,  Memovs,  History,  Bi»graghy^  Mtsays,  Philosophy, 
Sermons,  Novels  and  Speeches,  or  Orations. 

The  different  kinds  of  poetic  composition,  arc,  the  Epigram,  EpiUifl, 
Sonn«t,  Pastoral,  Didactic,  Saiirux,  Descriptive,  Elegiac,  Lyric,  Dramatic, 
and  Epic,  or  Heroic. 


202 


ANALYTrCAL,    TLLUSTRATIVE   AND 


SUBJECTS    FOR    COMPOSITION, 


1.  The  setting  sun. 

2.  The  fading  flower. 

3.  Christ  weeping  over  Jerasalem. 

4.  The  Marys  of  the  Scripturas. 

5.  The  wise  men  led  by  the  star. 

6.  Education  a  preventative  of  crime. 

7.  Education  the  road  to   eibinence  and 

distinction. 

8.  The  morning  of  life. 

9.  The  close  of  life, 

10.  The  noon  of  life. 

11.  The  teidoncy  of  the  age. 

12.  The  path  of  duty,  the  path  of  safety. 

13.  Courage. 

14.  Hope. 

15.  Eeligion  the  brightest   orsament  of 

youth. 

16.  Freedom. 

17.  All  things  bright  must  fade. 

18.  Stability  of  character. 

19.  The  lilly. 

20.  Power  of  habit. 
tl.  Criticism. 

22.  Government  of  temper. 

23.  Karly  attachments. 

24.  Poetical  taste. 

25.  The  grave  of  the  young. 

26.  Manners. 

27.  Parental  indulgence. 

28.  Ruth's  afiection  for  Naomi. 

29.  Our  country. 
SO.  Justice. 
81.  Linville  Falls. 
32.  Beauty. 
83.  My  Bible. 
34.  Try  again. 
85.  Time  flies. 
36.  Friends  in  adversity. 
S7.  Nature's  God. 

88,  Public   opinion. 

89.  The  mountains  of  North  Carolina 

40.  Politeness. 

41.  Anger. 

42.  Envy. 

43.  Suspicion. 

44.  Intemperance  the   way  to   shame  and 

death. 

45.  Ignorance. 

46.  The  battle  of  the  Cowpens. 

47.  We  must  all  die. 

48.  North  Carolina. 

49.  Virginia. 
iO,  South  Carolina. 
61.  Learning. 

52.  Meditations  among  the  tombs. 
63.  English  Grammar, 

54.  The  world  as  it  ii. 

55.  Keligion. 

56.  Let  me  think. 

57.  Is  there  not  &  cause  / 

58.  The  waning  mooB, 
99.  Prid^. 


SO.  Wisdom. 

61.  Astronomj. 

62.  The  law. 

63.  Tho  valley  o[  dry  bones. 

64.  Art. 

65.  Science. 

66.  Curiosiky. 

67.  Misery  is  wed  to  guilt. 

68.  The  loarned  professions. 

69.  Language. 

70.  Weeping. 

71.  Love. 

72.  Astrology. 

73.  All  pleasure  is  vain. 

74.  Omnipotence. 

75.  Good  society. 

76.  Writing. 

77.  Bonaparte's  banishment  to  St.Helena. 

78.  The  polar  star, 

79.  George  Washington. 

80.  Noah  entering  the  ark; 
31.  The  Flood. 

82.  Rome, 

83.  The  beauties  of  nature. 

84.  The  pleasure  of  doing  good. 

85.  Time,  how  short ! 
Ichabod. 

87.  Tho  beauties  ef  the  Latin  language. 

88.  Eloquence  of  Demosthenes. 

89.  Success  the  reward  of  industry  and 
perseverance. 

90.  Eloquence  of  Cicero. 

91.  Bene'lict  Arnold. 

92.  The  structure  of  the  ancient  and  mod- 
ern languages  compared. 

93.  The  race  is  not  to  the  swift. 

94.  Hope,  excited  by  brilliant  talent,  is 
sometimes  disappointed. 

95.  Improvement. 

96.  Fashionable  education. 

97.  The  influence  and  folly  of  fashien. 

98.  Woman, 

99.  Youth  is  the  time  for  improvement. 

100.  A  few  things  well  learned,  is  better 
than  a  superficial  knowledge  of 
many. 

101.  (Christianity. 

102.  Heroism. 

103.  Conjugal  affection. 

104.  History. 

105.  Fortitude. 

106.  Art  of  pleasing. 

107.  Natural  laws. 

108.  Study. 

109.  Man. 
no.  Death. 

111.  Kteraity. 

112.  The  Scriptures. 

113.  Gratitude, 

114.  Knowledge  is  power. 

115.  Forgiveness. 
!ll6.  SioKne«s. 


CON'STRUCTIVK    GRAMMAR. 


203 


1 17.  Mt.  Mitch  el. 
lis.  Liberty. 

119.  Literary  genius. 

120.  Independonoe. 

121.  Government. 

122.  Trust  in  God. 

123.  The  pulpit. 

124.  Sources  of  knowledge. 

125.  The  gambler. 
12«.  The  liar. 

127.  Intemperance. 

128.  Use  of  tobacco. 


129.  TJso  of  ardent  spirits. 
l.'^O.  The  rose. 

131.  Compasjion. 

132.  The  press. 

133.  The  voice. 

134.  Masic. 

185.  The  choice  of  a  profegsion. 

136.  Contemplation. 

137.  On  forming  connections. 

138.  Traveling. 

139.  Emulation. 

140.  Sloth. 


CHAPTER    XL. 


ENGLISH,    LATIN    AND    GREEK    PRBPIXB3. 
ENOLISn    PREFIXBS. 

A  signi6es  on  or  in;  a?,  A-foot;  a-bed. 

After — posterior  in  time ;  as,  After-noon. 

Be — about;  as,  To  be-sprinkle;  also  by  or  nigh;  as,  Be-side. 

Ftr — negation  ;  as,  To  for-bid  ;  for-sake. 

Fore — beforehand;  as,  To  fore-sec  ;  fore-telL 

Miss — defect  or  error ;  as,  Mis-behave. 

Over — cininency  or  superiority ;  as,  To  ovcr-come ;  also  excess;  as,  To 
over-drive. 

Out — excess,  excellency  or  superiority;  as.  To  out-number;  out-shine. 

Un — negation  ;  as,  Unable ;  unwilling- 

Wndtr — inferiority  in  ranks;  as,  Undcr-clerk;  also  diminution  in  value; 
as.  To  under-rate. 

Up — above;  upwards;  as,  To  up-lift ;  up-land. 

Wit7i — against ;  as,  To  with-stand  ;  also  from  or  back  ;  a.s,  To  with-hold. 

LATIN   PREFIXES. 

Ab  or  ahs  signifies  from  ;  as,  Abstain  ;  absolve. 

Ad — to  or  at;  as,  Adjoin  ;  adjacent 

Ante — before  ;  as,  Ante-date. 

Gircum — about  or  around  ;  as,  Circum-volve  ;  circum-navigate. 

Con — with  or  together ;  as,  Con-dole. 

Contra — against ;  as,  Contradict 

Connter — against;  as,  Countcr-niand. 

De — motion  from  or  down ;  as,  De-part  ;  de-grade  ;  de-ject. 

Di — asunder  ;  also  extension  ;  as,  l)i-lacerate  ;  di-late. 

Dis — negation  ;  as,  Dis-approve ;  dis-agreo. 

E  or  ex — out  or  off;  as  M^ject ;  ex-clude. 

Extra — beyond  ;  as.  Ex  travagant ;  ex-traordinary. 

In — negation  ;  as,  In-active ;  in-decorous. 

Inter — between  ;  as,  Inter-vene  ;  inter-rupt. 

Intro — within  ;  as,  Intro-duce  ;  intro-vert. 

6>ft— against ;  a.s,  Ob-jcct ;  ob-struct ;  also  out ;  as,  Ob-literate. 

Ptr — through  ;  as,  Per-vade. 


204  ANAIi¥<E»OAl^    Ebl^SSRAIvirE,    AN© 

Post — after ;  as,  Post-script ;  post-pone. 

Pre — before  ;  as,  Prefix ;  pre-exist. 

Prefer — past  or  beyond ;  as,  Preter-natural. 

Pro — forth  or  forward  ^  as,  Pro-duce ;  pro-ject. 

Pe — again  or  back  ;  as.  Re-print ;  re-pay. 

Eetro — backward ;  as,  Retro-spect. 

Se — aside  or  apart ;  as,  Se-duce ;  se-lect. 

Sui — under ;  as,  Sub-scribe ;  sub-marine, 

Subter — under  ;  as,  Subter-fluous, 

Super — above  or  over ;  as,  Super-structure. 

Trana — beyond ;  as.  Transport ;  transgress  ;  also  to  change ;  as  Transfono. 

GBEEK   PREFIXES. 

A  or  an  signifies  without  or  privation  ;  as,  A-nonymous  ;  an-archy. 

AmpM — both  and  about ;  as,  Amphi-bious  ;  amphi-theatcr. 

Anti — against ;  as,  Anti-dote. 

Ante — before ;  as,  Ante-date. 

Hyper — over  and  above  ;  as.  Hypcr-boHcal, 

Hypo — under ;  as,  Hypo-crite. 

Meta — beyond  change  ;  as,  Meta-phor. 

Peri — about ;  as,  Peri-meter ;  peri-hclion. 

Syn  or  Sym — with  or  together ;  as,  Syn-od ;  sym-pathy. 

GLOSSARY  OF  THE   DERIVATION    OF    THE  PRINCIPAL  SCIEN- 
TIFIC TERMS  USED  IN  THIS  WORK. 

Accent  is  from  the  Latin  acantus,  from  ad,  to,  and  cano,  to  sing, — to  sing  to 

Activa  is  from  the  Latin  activus,  and  ago,  to  act. 

Adjective  is  from  the  Latin  adjecihus,  from  ad,  to,  and  jacio,   to  throw — 

throten  to  or  against. 
Advtri  is  from  the  Latin  ad,  to,  and  verium,  a  word, — add^d  or  joined  to 

a  word. 
Affirmative  is  from  the  Latin  j?rmfl,  to  make  strong. 
Alligation  is  from  the  Latin  alligo,  to  bind  together. 
Af position  is  from  the  Latin  appositus,  placed  together  or  near. 
Apostrophe  is  from  the  Greek  apostrophe,  turning  away. 
Article  is  from  the  Latin  artic%lus,  a  little  joint. 
Aspirate  is  from  the  Latin  utjriro,  to    breathe  or  blow.     Greek  aspairo,  to 

palpitate. 
Atonic  is  from  the  prefix  a,  not,  and  tonos,  a  sound. 
Auxiliary  is  from  the  Latin  auxiliaris,  helping. 
Case  is  from  the  Latin  casus,  from  cado,  to  fall. 
Climax  is  from  the  Greek  Mlmax,  a  scale  or  ladder. 
Colon  is  trom  the  Greek  kolon,  a  member  or  limb. 
Comma  is  from  the  Greek  komma,  a  segment,  from  k&pto,  to  cut  off. 
C»mparative  is  from  the  Latin  comjmro,  to  compare. 
Construction  is  from  the  Latin  co7istructum,  from  construo,  to  construct. 
Concord,  is  from  the  Latin  concordia,  agreement. 
Conjugation  is  from  the  Latin  conjugatio,  from  eon,  together,  and  jugo,  to 

yoke — to  yoke  together. 
Conjunction  is  from  the  Latin  conjunctio,  from  con,  together,  and  jungo,  to 

join — to  join  together. 
Consonant  is  from  the  Latin  consonant,  sounding  together. 
Common  is  from  the  Latin  communis,  a  benefit  or  right. 
^ojwfcj  is  from  the  Latifl  aopulct,  a  band  or  tie. 


•  CONPTRPCTIVE      GRAMMAR.  205 

Dendrology  is  from  the  Greek  dendron,  a  tree,  and  lojfos,  a  doctrine. 
Declension  is  from  the  Latin  dedinatio,  bending  or  changing. 
Decline  is  from  the  Latin  de,  from,  and  clino,  to  bend — to  bend  from. 
Deductive  is  from  the  Latin  deduetio,  from  de,  from,  and   duco,  to  lead — to 

lead  from. 
Definite  is  from  the  Latin  defino,  to  d«finc. 
Demonstrative  is  from  the  Latin  Demonstro,  to  point  out. 
Difhthon^  is  from  the  Greek  diphthoggos,  a  double  sound. 
Dissyllable  is  from  the  Greek  di.'!suUMih4,  t\vo  syllables. 
Distributive  is  from  the  h^ixn  distribuo,  to  distribute. 
Element  is  from  the  Latin  chmentum,  a  constituent, 
Ellipsit  is  from  the  Greek  ellipsis,  an  omission.    • 
Etymoloijy  is  from  the  Greek  etumdlogia,   from   eiwnologeo,    to  derivo  a 

word  from  its  original. 
EmpIiMsis  is  from  the  Greek  einphanis,  a  charge. 
Feviini7i6\s  froin  the  Lai'm  femina,  a  woman.    , 
Future  is  from  the  Latin./"«^«r?/,9,  about  to  be. 
Futnre- Perfect  is  from  the  Latin  futurua-per/eotum,  completed  before  a 

future  time. 
Oender  is  from  the  Latin  genus,  a  kind  or  class, 
Gnomonology  is  from  the  Greek  g:ioinon,  a  point  or  index,  and  loj-^s,  a 

doctrine. 
Grammar  is  from  the  Greek  grammtt,  a  letter. 
Imperfect  is  from  the  Latin  imperfectua^Tiot  finished. 
Imperative  is  from  the  Latin  impero,  to  command. 
Implenary  is  from  the  Latin  implenun,  not  full. 
Indicative  is  from  the  Latin  indico,  to  declare. 
Infinitive  is  from  the  Latin  infinites,  not  bounded. 
Intlefinite  is  fram  the  Latin  iiidefinitus,  not  defined. 
Inductive  is  from  the  Litin  induco,  leading  with  or  to. 
Interjection  is  from  the  Litin  interjectio,  thrown  into  or  between. 
Intransitive  i<^  from  the  Latin  intransitioui,  not  passing  over. 
Integrity  is  from  the  Fiitin  integritas,  an  unbroken  state. 
Interrogative  is  from  the  Latin  interrogo,  to  ask. 
Irony  i>  from  the  Greek  eironea,  a  disnerabler. 

Irregular  is  from  the  Latin  ir,  not,  and  regular — not  regular,  \ 

Masculine  is  from  the  Latin  otim,  a  male. 
Metre  is  froai  the  Greek  mttron,  a  m  jasure. 
Moda  is  from  the  Latin  modus,  manner. 

Monotogy  is  from  the  (jreck  monos,  alone,  and  logos,  a  doctrine. 
Neuter  is  from  the  Latin  muter,  neither. 
Negative  is  from  the  Tjitin  nj;go,  to  deny. 
Notation  is  from  the  Latin  notatio,  a  mark. 
Noeton  is  from  the  Greek  noetos,  perceived  by  the  mind. 
Nominative  ig  from  the  Latin  nomiiio,  to  name. 
Nou?i  ia  from  the  Latin  nonien,  a  namt. 
Order  is  from  the  Iia,tin  or(^Zr>,  a  met  lodicil  arrangement. 
Objective  iif  from  the  ijitm  obje^tivus,  from  06,  against,  and/^cw,  ti  thro^r,  — 

thrown  to  or  against.  • 

Orthography   is  from    th3    Greek   orthographic,    from  orthos,    true,  an  I 

graphfi,  writing,  —  v  riting  words  correctly, 
Partf/t'A^-«/«  is  from  tho  ii reek  ;»irf/*'A^#/v,   frvn   pira,   and  entitkemi,  t) 

insert. 
PartieipU  is  from  the  Litin  par6iji/>/!T;rt,   froia  ^'ir*,  a  part,  and  capio,  it 

take. 


206  AKALYTICAL,  ILI,U6tRATIVE    AKD 

Passive  (voice)  is  from  the  Latin  passivus,  from  paticr,  to  suffer, — suf- 
fering. 
Perfect  is  from  the  Latin  perfectum,  completed. 
Period  is  trom  the  Greek  periodos,  (rom  peri,  around,  and  odos,  a  way — 

a  circuit. 
Personification   is   from  the   Latin  persona,   a   person,  and  facio,  to 

make, — making  persons. 
Petitionative  is  from  the  Latin  2^eto,  to  seek  or  implore — asking. 
Polysyllable  is  from  the  Greek  2^olus,  many,  and    sullahe,  a  syllable — 

many  syllables.   • 
Position,  is  from  the  Latin  pos«<zo,  a  place. 

Potential  is  from  the  Latio  potentialis,  belonging  to  power  or  ability. 
Predicate  is  from  the  Latin  prcedicaius,  from  prcedico,  to  declare. 
Preposition  is  from  the  Lati n  prfpose'^io,  from  prepositus,  placed  before. 
Pronoun  is  from  the  Latin  pro  nomen,  for  or  instead  of  a  name. 
Prosody  is  from  the  Greek  ^^'''osodia,  from  2Jros,  for,  and  ode,  a  song. 
Punctuation  is  from  the  Latin  punctum,  a  stop  or  point. 
Plenary  is  from  the  Latin  phmis,  full. 
Pural  is  from  the  Latin  -pl^'h  more. 
Possessive  is  from  iheJjatm  possideo,  to  possess. 
Regular  is  from  the  Latin  feoula,  a  rule. 

Semicolon  is  from  the  Latin  semi,  half,  and  the  Greek  kolon,  a  point. 
Sentence  is  from  the  Latin  sententia,  a  thought. 
Subject  is  from  the  Latin  subjectus,  placed  under. 
Subjunctive  is  from  the  Latin  subjunctivus,  subjoined. 
Subfirtna live  IB  Uom  the  Le^Un   sub,   under  or    inferior,    andyi?-mo,  to 

make  strong. 
Substantive  'S  from  the  Latin  substantia,  a  substance. 
Superlative   is    from  the  Latin    stqyerlutivus,  from  super,  above,  and 

latum,  carried, — carried  above. 
Sorites  is  from  the  Greek  sorites,  a  hoap. 

Syllof/isrn  is  from  the  Latin  syllogismus  ;  Greek  sylloyismos,  thinking. 
Syllable  is  from  the  Greek  sul.labe,  a  syllable. 
Syntax  is   from  the  Greek  suntaxis,   from  sun,  together,  and    tasso,  to 

pat, — to  p'  t  together. 
Singular  is    lom  the  Latin  singidus,  one  by  one. 
Teyise  is  frri     .ho  Latin  tampus,  time. 
Tonic  is  fi'  lu  the  Greek  tonos,  a  soeind. 
Transitive  i^^  from  the  Latin    transltivus,  from    trans,  across,  and  eo,  to 

go, — going  over  or  across. 
Triphthong  is  from  the  Greek  treis,  three,  and  tkoggos,  a  sound, — three 

sounds. 
Trihyllab  e  is  from  the  Greek  trcis,  three,  and  sullabe,  a  syllable, — 

three  syllables. 
Verb  is  from  the  LaLin  verlum,  a  word. 
Verse  is  from  th--  Latin  versus,  tVom  verto,  to  turn. 
Voivel  is  trom  ii^e  Latin  vocalis,  iiuui  vox,  the  voice. 


CONSTRUOTIVK    GRAMMAR. 


207 


APPENDIX. 


NOUNS. 

Gender,  Number,  Person,  and  Case,  belong  to  nouns. 

Gender,  in  the  Eng1i-;h  languai^e,  depends  pr-incipilly  ou  the  sex  of  the 
object;  and  not,,  like  many  other  langinjj.-A,  , -i  torniT.tions. 

VVhen  nouns,  natumllv  neuter,  are  personiliud  or  used  figiuMrijvely,  they 
are  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

Those  nouns  which  are  by  nature  strong  and  cDBcacious,  or  noted  for  th« 
attributes  of  communicating  or  imparting,  are  masculine ;  is.  The  Sun^ 
Dr<}(h,  Time  etc. 

Those  nouns  which  are  noted  for  the  attributes  of  b  luLy,  mildness, 
clemency,  or  containing,  arc  feminine;  as,  Afoon,  Virtue,   Luxrity,  etc. 

Nouns  have  three  modes  of  farming  the  gender. 

1.  By  a  regular  termination  for  the  feminine ;  as, 


actor 

actress 

deacon 

deaconess 

abhot 

abbess 

duke 

duchess 

ndultorer 

adulteress 

embassador 

embassadress 

baron 

baroness 

emperor 

empress 

benefactor 

benefactress 

tiger 

tigress      * 

governor 

governess 

songster 

songstress 

hero 

heroine 

seamstor 

seamstress 

beir 

heiress 

viscount 

viscountess 

peer 

peeress 

jew 

Jewess 

priest 

priestess 

lion 

lioness 

poet 

poetess 

master 

mistress 

prince 

princess 

marquis 

marchioness 

prophet 

prophetess 

patron 

patrouess 

shepherd 

ehepherdoss 

protector 

protectoress 

sorcerer 

sorceress 

executor 

exeutrix 

tutor 

tutoress 

testator 

testatrix 

instructor* 

instructress 

elect'. I 

eloctress 

traitor 

traitoresB 

administrator 

administratrix 

count 

countess 

widower 

widow 

2.  By  different  words ;  as. 

man 

woman 

• 

undo 

aunt 

boy 

girl 

brother 

Bister 

son 

daughter 

horse 

mare        | 

3.   By  prefixing  a  syllable  or 

'  word ;  as. 

A  male  rabbit 

a  female  rabbit            a  man  servant 

a  maid  servant 

a  be  goat 

a  she  goat 

a  cock-.sparrow 

li  hen  sparrow. 

The  pluralt  of  most  nouns  is 

formed  by  annexmgs  or  cs  to  tl\f  sing 

NUMBER. 

*The  fomlntne  of  most  noons  ending  in  or  is  formed  by  retrenching  tko  vowel  ai,^ 
blending  two  Byllables  in  one  ;  as  ActOB,  actiiKss. 

+Tho  plural  of  mere  charactsrs  is  formed  by  anneiinst  the  apostrophe  auds:  as,  Two 
«'b  Mid  three  6'e. 


208 


ANAIVTJOAL,    ILLIWTBATIVE      AND 


as,  boy^  loys  ;  girl,  girls,  etc.  S  only  is  added  when  it  will  coalesce  in 
sound  with  the  other  letters;  as,  Table,  tables  ;boo'k,  looks,  etc.;  but  when* 
will  not  coalesce  in  sound  with  the  other  letters,  es  is  annexed  ;  as,  Bench, 
tenches ;  box,  boxes;  etc.  When  ^  has  the  sound  of  tsh,  s  will  not  unite 
with  it  in  sound ;  but  when  it  represents  the  sound  of  k,  s  will  readily  unite 
in  sound  with  it;  as,  Monarch,  Monarchs ;  patriarch,  ^^atriarchs,  etc. 

"When  a  name  ends  in  y,  after  a  consonant,  the  plural  is  formed  by  drop- 
ping y  and  adding  ies  ;  as.  Vanity,  vanities.  Alkali  has  a  regular  plural — 
ulhilics.  But,  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  formed  by  annexing s; 
as,  Joy,  joys  ;  valley,  valleys,  etc. 

Some  nouns  deviate  from  the  foregoing  rules  in  the  formation  of  the 
plural. 

Class  1. — In  some  nouns  /  in  the  singular  is  changed  into  v  in  the  plu- 
ral for  the  sake  of  utterance ;  as, 


life 

lives 

wolf 

wolves 

loaf 

loaves 

knife 

knives 

self 

selves 

wharf 

wharves 

wife 

wives 

half 

halves 

thief 

thieves 

leaf 

leaves 

beef 

beeves 

shelf 

shelves 

calf 

calves 

elf 

elves 

sheaf 

sheaves 

Class  2. — Some  nouns  are  used  in  both  numbers,  with  their  plurals  ir- 
regularly formed ;  as, 


child 

foot 

tooth. 

man  I 

vomnn 

hypothe'sis 

emphasis 

die 

focus 

radius 

criterion 


children 

pea 

feet 

ox 

teeth 

louso 

men 

goose 

women 

beau 

hypotheses 

thesis 

emphases 

penny 

dies  or  dice 

antithesis 

focusses  <  r  feci 

calx 

radiuses  or  radii 


index 


criteiioDS  or  criteria    brother 


peas  or  pease 

oxen 

lice 

geese 

beaux 

tholes 

pennies  or  pence 

antitheses 

ealxes  or  calces 

indexes  or  indices 

brethren  or   brothers 


Cherubim  and  seraphim  are  real  Hebrew  plurals  ;  but  su'-h  is  the  propensity  of 
men  to  lorm  regular  inflections  in  language,  that  these  words  are  used  as  in  the 
singular  with  regular  plurals  ;  as  Chcrubims,  seraphims.  In  like  manner  tht  He- 
brew singulars,  Cherub  and  Seraph  have  regular  plurals. 

Class  3. — Those  which  have  a  plural  termination,  take  a  plural  verb  ;  as, 


annals 

archives 

ashes 

assets 

bitters 

compasses 

clothes 

calendb' 

breeches 

bowels 


drawers 
downs 

dregs 

embers 

entrails 

fetters 

filings 

goods 

hatches 

ides 


lees 

customs 

lungs 

shears 

matii^ 

scissors 

mallows 

shambles 

orgies 

tidings 

nippers 

longs 

pincers  or 

victuals 

pinchers 

thanks 

pleiades 

vespers 

snuffers 

vitals 

Letters  in  the  sense  of  literature,  and  manners   in  the  sense  of  behavior,  may   be 
added  to  t^e  foregoing  list. 

Class  4. — Soms  nouns  ending  with  th«  plural  termination,  are  used  in 
the  singular  or  plural  at  the  pleasure  of  the  writer;  as, 


wages 

billiards 

catoptrics 

mathematics 

comics 

fives 

diaphoretics 

mechanics 

economics 

seasious 

acoustics 

hydraulics 

am«nd8 

measles 

aim!! 

hysterici 

bellows 

physics 

cdds 

ethics 

melons 

optica 

pains 

news 

pnc^umatics  hydrostatica 

statistics  analytics 

statics  politics 

spherics  molasses 

tactics  riofaei 
gallows 

Of  these,  paing,  riches,  and  reaves.*  are  more  usaaUy  cc  nsidered  as  ]  lural  nouns. 
News  ij  always  singular, — odds  and  means  are  either  sing  lar  or  plural  -the  others 
are  more  siriotly  singular;  lor  measles  is  the  name  of  a  dif  iso,  and  8tri":'y  lo  more 
plural  than  ;/t)»«t  or /crw.  Small-2mx— for  pocks^\9  somotiuies  considcrodas  si»» 
gular.  BiiUiii'd.f  is  the  name  of  a  game  containing  wnity  of  idea ;  and  ethics,  phys- 
ics, and  similar  names,  comprehendin<j  each  the  whole  system  of  ^.  PHtticular 
science,  do  not  convey  the  ideas  of  psrt.s  or  particular  brarich<^s  ;  but  i '  >  >«  ic'.e  col- 
lectively, uBity; — hence  singular.  Mo/a*ses  (more  striciU  meUseca)  t'>r  vxi  Spui- 
ish  melaza,  is  strictly  singular,  being  tlie  syrup  vphi^h  drains  from  Mut>covf'<lo  sugar 
while  cooling. 

Class  5. — Such  nouns  as  have  a  singular  form  take  a  plural  T«rb;  as, 

A  hundred  head.  Twenty  sail. 

A  thousand  horse.  "  Five  thousand  foot,  etc. 

Class  6. — Some  nouns  have  no  plural  form  ;  such  as.  Sheep,  deer,  swine, 
etc.  The  singular  or  plural  df  these  can  only  be  known  by  the  verb  as- 
sociated with  them,  or  the  singular  may  be  determined  by  prefixing  the 
article  «;  as,  A  sheep,  a  deer,  etc. 

CASE. 

I,n  addition  to  what  has  been  said  on  this  subject,  in  the  body  of  the 
work,  the  fallowing  remarks  may  be  of  some  service  to  the  learner. 

Rem.  I. — The  Possessive  ca^o  of  singular  nouns  is  generally  formed  by  the  use  of 
the  ayio?frophe  and  s;  a?,  Tho  boy's  book.  But  when  a  singular  noun  ends  in  a 
hissing  sound,  followed  by  a  word  commencing  wi'h  a  hissing  soand,  the  apostro- 
phe only  is  used  ;  as.  Tboy  suffer  for  conscience'  sake ;  For  righteousness' sake. 
Some  writers  omit  the  s  of  a  sinsular  noun  when  it  is  not  followed  by  a  word  com- 
mencing with  »  hissing  sound  ;  us,  Moses'  rod, — instead  of  Moses's  rod.  All  nouns 
pluralized  by  s  should  retain  the  apostrophe  only;  as,  "Those  boys'  books."  "  Har- 
riet makes  li<lies'  bonnets." 

Ri;m.  2.  — AVben  the  governing  noun  i,^  obvious,  it  is  usunl  to  omit  it  ;  ufi,  ''  Let  us 
jro  to  St.  Paul'a,"  that  iV,  cliuro!!.  "  iSfor  think  a  lovers  are  but  f.incied  woes." 
When  the  posBe.«!sor  is  descr:l)ad  by  Ito  or  more  names,  the  sign  of  the  pfssassive 
is  generally  annexed  to  the  last ;  as,  •'  Tho  captain  of  the  guard's  house."  "  Of  the 
children  of  Israel's  half,  thou  shall  t.iko  one  portion."  In  such  cases,  all  I'.o names 
may  be  p;ir.«ed  at  a  compound  noun,  and  should  perhaps  be  written  with  a  hyphen, 
thus  :  Tho  c  ipiain-of-the-^^uard's  house,  liat,  if  the  thing  possessed  is  represented 
as  belonginj^  to  a  number  i?i?vorally  cpociScd,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  .•should  bo 
repeated  with  prcH  ;  as,  "  Jlcj  has  the  surgeon's  and  the  physician's  advice"  It 
may  be  observcii  that  thisromork  is  in  direct  collision  with  Murray's  rule.  Thereis 
an  obvious  har.^hness  in  tho  reading  of  tlio  following  sentence:  "It  was  the  men, 
women,  and  children's  lot  to  i=utr<jr  extremely."  Dr.  Webster  .iustly  rera.irks  that 
Murray's  rule  is  egrog  iousiy  wrong  as  exemplified  in  this  phrase  :  "  This  was  my 
father,  7iiothor,  and  uncle's  advii>Tj.-'  This  is  not  English.  "When  we  say, 
"  The  king  of  England's  throne,"  tho  fhroo  words,  king  of  England,  are  f  ne  name 
in  eft'ect,  and  can  have  bu'  one  sign  of  tho  possessive.  But,  when  two  or  three  dis- 
tinct names  are  used,  the  article  posf^esped  is  described  as  belonging  to  each  ;  '•  I'  »Tas 
my  faiher'.s  advice,  my  mother's  advieo,  and  ii.y  uncle's  advice."  Wo  can  omi»  id- 
vice  alter  the  two  first,  but  by  no  means  tho  sign  of  the  pofl8^•s^ive.  It,  howevnr,  sh')uld 
be  observed,  that  when  two  nouns  mutually  possess  tho  same  object,  and  a)e  closely 
connected  by  a  conjunction,  that  good  writers  frequently  omit  the  »ign  yf  the  first; 
as,  "  David  and  Jonathan's  frioadsWip."    "  Adam  and  Eve's  morning  hymn." 

♦Wages,  orifinally  waois,  Isrtally  elngular. 


210  ANALTTICAL,    ILLUSIRATITK     ASO 

Rem.  3. — When  n^'  ins  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  clof-  pn.'-cesslon,  writers 
generally  omit  the  ji/seessive  sign  to  all  but  the  last;  as,  "  For  D.ivid.  my  servant's 
8ake.  But,  when  tb '3  governing  noun  is  either  expressed  or  o\)vint!.^ly  understood 
before  the  first  possessive,  the  possessive  sign  should  be  annexed  to  t,he  first  and 
omitted  at  the  rest;  ns,  "  Herod  laid  hold  on  John,  and  bound  h  m,  and  put  him  in 
prison  for  Hcrodias'  sake,  his  brother  Philip's  wife."  '■  The  silk  whs  purchased  at 
Erowu's,  the  mercer  r.rd  haHerdasher."  The  c  instruction  of  the  U.-t,  iwo  ftxaaiples 
isfaulty.  It  would  l>o  better  to  coustrue  thein  thus:  -'Herod  liid  held  on  John, 
and  bound  him,  and  cast  him  into  prison  f'^r  t'le  ^mIcu  of  Herofliiis,  the  wil'o  of  hia 
brother  Phillip."  A-<  ."^ome  possessives  are  difficult  t-'  utter,  and  yonsequsntly  hurt- 
ful to  the  euphony  of  the  sentence,  the  same  idea  mav  be  more  el  ■•;^  mily  expressed 
by  the  preposition  of ;  thus,  "  Give  me  here  John  ilaptist's  head  in  a  charger" — 
better,  "Give  me  here  the  bead  of  .John   Baptistin  a  charger." 

It  is  inelegant  to  construe  several  nouns  in  the  possessive  oaso  in  juxf-i,  position 
with  e.Tch  other;  fs,  "Peter's  tmfe's  mother  lay  sick  of  a  fover."  Better  thus  : 
"  Tlie  mother  of  Peter's  wife  lay  sick  of  a  fever." 

APPOSITION. 

When  other  nouns  are  artpended  to  the  principal  name  to  identify  or  ex- 
plain it,  they  are  in  apposit  on  with  it;  as,  "  Dar.iel  Webster,  the  distin- 
guished statesman  and  orator,  now  reposes  in  the  noisi'less  grave."  In 
this  example,  statesman  and  orator  identify  Daniel  Webster,  by  showing 
what  kind  of  a  man  he  was. 

?lE5i.  1,— Words  in  apposition  must  be  construed  in  the  same  member  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  that  is,  both  with  the  subject  or  both  with  the  predicate. 

Rem.  2. — Words  are  not  unfrequently  pvt  \a  apposition  with  a  whole  sentence  or 
part  of  a  sentence;  as,  "  Whereby  if  a  mm  had  a  poci'ive  idea  of  infinite,  either 
space  or  duration,  he  could  add  two  infinites  together;  nay,  make  one  infinite  infinite- 
ly bigger  than  another ;  absurdities  too  gross  to  be  confi'.ted."  Here  ubsurditins  are 
put  bT  apposition  with  all  the  preceding  propositions.  "You  arc  luo  humane  and 
considerate  ;  things  few  people  can  be  chargad  with."  Here  things  are  in  apposi- 
tion to  humane  and  considerate. 

Rem.  3. —  -V  complex  name,  consisting  of  several  names,  or  even  a  title  and  a 
nr.me,  m;s>  b-)  narsed  as  a  siugle  name  ;  as,  "Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  invented  the 
lishtnuig-iod."  Parsed— !>;•.  Benjamin  Franklin,  is  a  proper  noun,  masculine  gen- 
der, third  person,  singular,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  invented,  accord- 
ing to  rule — The  subject  of  the  verb  must  1  h  in  the  nominative  case.  When  a  defi- 
nite article  and  a  numeral  adjective  arc  used  in  oonrection  with  the  title  and  a  name, 
the  name  only  should  be  pluralized :  a^,  "  The  two  Miss  Turner.'?."  •'  The  three  Miss 
Browns."  "  The  two  Dr,  Longs."  But.  when  used  -yitaout  the  numeral,  the  title 
only  is  pluralized:  as,  "  Tiie  Missed  Smith."  But,  of  married  ladies,  the  name  only 
isplur-alizad;  as,  Mrs.  Lowes."  In  conversation,  the  teim  Misses  is  now  generally 
apiilied  to  a  married  lady  ;  as,  "  Alisses  Hamby."  When  two  or  more  names,  con- 
nected by  ff/i</,  having  the  same  title,  the  title  only  should  be  pluralized;  as, 
"Messrs.  Nesbitt,  Turner,  and  Iloleman."     "  Doators  Campbell  and  Love." 

It  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  Miss,  the  title  of  a  young  lady,  that  there  is 
some  diversity  of  usan;e.  In  conversation,  we  generally  say  the  Miss  Grays,  and 
this  was  formerly  the  custom  in  writing,  as  shown  in  the  practice  of  Burke,  Bos- 
\ve'!,  and  many'others.  Of  late  it  has  become  customary  in  writing  to  say  Misses  ; 
as,  "  Micses  Gray."  This  may  bo  now  regarded  as  the  prevailing  usage.  In  fa- 
miliar conversation,  we  frequantly  apply  Miss  to  the  Christian  name  ;  as,  "  Miss 
Mnry  ;"  but,  in  writing  and  in  all  introductions,  it  thould  be  applied  to  the  family 
mime ;  as,  "  Miss  Gray." 

THE  SAME  WORDS  USED  AS  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

Like  is  used  as  four  parts  of  speech. 

Like  is  a  noun  when  it  means  resemblance  ;  as,  "  Every  creature  loves  its  like."  It 
is  a  verb  when  it  ^presses  a  preference  and  is,nearly  synonymous  with  love;  as,  "I 
like  what  you  disliffe."  It  is  on  adjective  when  it  is  equivalent  to  similar  ;  as,  "  An- 
(fer,  envy,  and  like  passions,  are  sinful."  It  is  an  adverb  when  it  means  in  the  satae 


C0N8TRUGT1TE    GRAMMAR.  211 


manner,  or  similar  to  ;  as,  "  Charity^^Bthe  sun,  brightens  every  object  around  it." 
Somo  authors  conSidar //'fce,  in  theBH^Woxamplo,  a  preposition.  This  opinion  is 
gaining  ground.  Like,  however,  is  an  adoerb  when  used  in  coano  •tion  with  as  ; 
but,  in  I'll  ;h  constructions,  it  is  superfluous;  a?,  "  L'ke  as  a  father  pit!'>th  his  chiU 
dren  ;  so  the  Lord  pitieth  t'lem  that  fo  ir  him."  Tliis  sentence  would  l-ise  nothins; 
of  its  f.iroe  and  perspicuity  by  the  omission  of  like.  Tbus,  "  As  a  fith  :  pitioth  his 
children  ;  so  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him." 

BOTH. 

Author.'^  generally  regard  both  as  a  conjunction  when  it  is  followed  by  and  ;  as, 
"  \W'  as?i-ted  him  both  for  his  sake  and  our  own."  {Smith's  G  fu/.i  ir,  page  109.) 
The  coniK'Ctive  quality  of  6(7i!A  in  such  constructions  is  very  a  jubti  :'. ;  it  is  certain 
it  forms  i;o  connection  of  itself,  and  should,  if  regarded  as  a  c  .^ju;ict'on  at  all,  be 
parsed  with  and,  as  they  form  but  one  connection.  Both  and,  in  such  constructions, 
are  nearly  synonymous  with /io<  onZy  but ;  a,s,  "We  assisted  h'in,/iot  only  fO|.  his 
sake,  but  also  for  our  sake."  Not  only  but  in  similar  construct,  ins,  ra  'y  ba  regard- 
ed as  a  correlative  conjunction,  as  they  form  but  one  connection,  and  have  a  recip- 
rocal relation  to  each  other. 

B )th  is  frequently  used  as  a  specifying  adjective  ;  as,  "Both  men  were  badly  in- 
jured liy  the  fall."  Bn'his  also  not  uafrequently  use!  a?  a  siibii'.itute  f,5r  two  nouns 
used  in  the  preceding  clause  ;  as,  •■  .V.i)raham  took  sheep  and  o'can,  and  gavo  ihem 
to  .A.bimelech;  both  of  them  were  made  a  covenant."  Boti  is  som^-times  used  as  a 
substitute  for  two  membars  of  a  t^oni'nica  ;  as,  •  do  wiU  nor,  bear  ike  'os^  of  his  rank  , 
because  he  can  bear  the  loss  of  hif  est  its;  b-u  he  will  bear  both  be  luse  he  is  pr!- 
X>>rad  for  both.  In  the  I'.iilowuu'  seutence.  bjlh  is  a  substitute  for  two  adjivtives  : 
"  Some  are  beautiful  and  otier-:  pre  young;  bat  .Mary  is  both"  Uera  both  is  evi- 
dently a  substitute  for  beautiful  and  young. 

B  UT. 

But  is  used  for  three  parts  of  speech. 

It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  connects  the  members  of  a  sentence;  as,  "  He  wrote 
tb".  deed,  but  he  will  write  no  more." 

It  is  an  adverb  when  used  in  the  sense  of  only;  as,  "Our  light  afflictions  are  but 
f.ir  a  moment  "  It  is  regarded  generally  by  authors  as  a  preposition  when  it 
means  (x<'ept  or  excepting  ;  as,  "  They  were  all  well  but  the  stranger,"  that  is.  they 
were  all  well  «xcep:  the  jt-anger.  In  examules  like  the  last,  Dr.  Webster  contends 
that  but  is  a  participle,  and  it  must  be  coulessed  that  the  etj-mology  of  the  word 
favors  his  opinion. 

AFTER    AND    BEFORE. 

After  is  an  adverb  when  it  means  time ;  a/,  "  After  I  had  visited  Europe,  I  re- 
turned to  America."  .^/^c' is  frequently  used  in  an  implenary  member ;  as,  "  Af- 
ter these  things.  Jesus  drpnrted  and  went  into  Galilee."  In  such  ropstructions,  af- 
ir.r  \i  generallv  )  ,irsed  a.s  a  preposition,  but  errnr.pously,  as  tvo  tliink,  as  will  be 
feou  by  rendoryig  the  tentence  plenary,  »nd  construing  it  in  the  natural  orJ*r  ;  as, 
''  Jesus  departed  alter  these  things  bad  occurred,  and  went  into  (i.ililee."  After  is 
.1  preposition  when  it  shows  the  relation  of  position  ;  as,  "My  soul  foilowoth  hard 
after  thee.'' 

Before  is  an  adverb  when  it  means  time;  as,  "  He  had  visited  mo  before."  It 
sh  'lid  be  observed  that  when  before  is  thus  used,  it  is  generally  a  conjunctive  ad- 
verb, a  member  of  a  -sentence  being  understood.  Before  is  a  prepo.«ition  when  it 
shows  the  relation  of  position  or  preference;  as,  "He  stood  before  uie."  "He  was 
preferred  before  ine." 

Rem. — After  .\nd  before  are  frequently  used  by  eood  wri'ers  for  proposition.s, 
>yhere  they  arn  really  adverbs-  a.<,  "  Ho  that  c9meto  after  me  is  pr^'ferred  before 
me,  {<y:  he  vraj  before  me."  After  in  tho  first  member,  and  before  in  c  I  >^t  mem- 
ber, denote  time,  aiii  are,  therct'ore,  pr^periy  Mtlverbs  ;  thus,  ••  Hl  h...  cuiiieth  alter 
I  came,  is  preferrcj  beforome  ;  '•>r  i'  >  was  before  I  was." 

Ttie  .luthor  doos  not  recommou''  his  reau^ra  to  rrite  and  speak  contrary  to  this 
oaittom,  but  they  should  know  whet    is  Englith  and  what  is  ou:<toDi. 


2l2  ANAtTTSCAL,    ItLl^STRATnTK    Ajn> 

THAT. 

Taat  is  a  relative  when  it  can  be  changed  to  lirho  or  which  without  injuring  tB» 
sense;  ss,  "Him  that  is  negligent  reprove  sharply  " — changed,  "  Him  icrho  is  negli- 
gent reprove  sharply.''  TTiat  is  frequently  usod  as  a  substitute  for  a  clause  which 
fellows  it  in  construction  ;  as,  "  I  have  heard  that  the  Greeks  djefeated  the  Turks  ;" 
here  that  is  a  substitute  for  "  the  Greeks  defeated  the  Turks  j"  "  the  Greeks  d«feat- 
ed  the  Turks — I  have  heard  that."  That  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  a 
noun  usad  in  a  preceding  clause;  as,  "  For,  by  f^rnoe,  ye  are  saved,  through  faith  , 
ard  that  not  of  yourselves;  for  it  is  the  gift  of  God;" — here  thai  is  a  substitute  for 
grace ;  as,  "  By  grace  ye  are  saved,  through  faith,  and  that  grace  not  of  yourselves," 
etc.  That  is  frequently  used  as  a  specifying  adjective  ;  as,  "  TTiat  thing  that  thai 
m:>n  said,  should  not  be  sepeated." 

TAat, in  the  following  sentence,  is  used  as  a  notin,  b,3  sl  siibstitutc  (or  conjuao- 
tion),  as  a  relaiive  pronoian,  and  as  a  specifying  adjective.  "  The  tutor  speaking  of 
that,  said  that  that  that  that  that  gentleman  parsed,  was  not  thaLthat  that  that 
lady  requested  him  to  analyze." 

MANY    AND    FEW. 

Thongh  mafii/  and  fem  are  generally  used  as  adjectives,  they  are  not  unfrequent- 
ly  empk'jed  as  substitutes;  as,  "Many  are  called;  l>ut  few  are  chosen."  In  this 
sentence,  7»awi/ and /eu>  are  used  as  substitutes  for  many  a,nd  few  persons.  Th© 
same  may  be  predicated  of  many  of  the  specifying  adjectives  of  the  numeral  kind; 
as,  "  Tlie  soldiers  marched  two  by  two."  This  sentence,  rendered  plenary,  will  read 
thus — "  The  soldiers  marched  in  the  order  of  two  soldiers  by  two  soldiers."  The 
truth  is,  almost  any  of  the  specifying  adjectives  may  bo  used  as  substitutes  ;  as, 
"Some  men  labor,  others  labor  not.  The  former  increase  in  wealth  ;  the  latter  de- 
crease." iVb««  is  a  contraction  of  no  one;  cctacquently  its  onginal  and  proper 
meattingis  singular:  but  custom  has  assigns!  it  a  plico  in  both  numbers  ;,as,iYo«e- 
performs  his  duty  too  well."  "  None  of  these  poor  wretehesj^complain  of  their 
auserabla  lot."    In  the  first   example,  mne  is  singular,  in  the  last,  plural. 

OWN. 

''  He  owns,  and  shall  forever  o'-vn. 
Wisdom  and  heaven  and  Christ  are  one." 

"We  assisted  him  for  his  own  sake."  "  He  came  unto  his  own  and  his  awn  re- 
ceived him  not"  In  the  first  of  these  examples,  owns  is  a  verb;  in  the  second,  a 
specifying  adjective  ;  and  in  the  third,  a  suostituto  for  ou>«  people ;  aj,  "  He  cam©- 
iinto  his  own  (people),  but  his  own.  (people)  received  him  not." 

ELSE. 

Else,  when  used  in  the  cense  frf  other  things  c?- other-  persons,  is  a  substitute  or 
pronoun  ;  as,  "  what  ci^e  could  he  have  done  ?"  Yf hoa  used  in  the  sense  of  other- 
■Kfise^,  it  is  an  adverb;  as,  "  Else  whence  this  longing  after  immortality  .^"—iAai  is,  if 
it  be  otherwise  (if  the  soul  be  not  imcaortal),  whence  this  longing  after  immortality  ? 

Else  is  sometimes  used  as  connective,  though  it  still  retains  its  adverbial  oharac- 
t«r;  as, "Thou  desirest  not  sacrifice,  else  would  I  giv&it." 

MUCH. 

;yit"t  is- used  as  throe  parts  of  speech.  Much,  in  the  first  of  the  following  ex- 
ft.aple  )  An  adverb  ;  in  the  seeond,  a.n  adjective ;  and,  in  the  last  e:j;ample,  is  » 
»>i,un.  V""ii  ha»e  your  mother  7nuck  offended."  "I  have  taken  TreucA  pai.iS." 
"  V/hero -ttwA  is  given,  7/iucA  is  required." 

NOTWITHSTANDING. 

N  TWi^TrsTANDiNG  is  .xsed  as  a  prepositi'm.  and  also  as  a  conjunction.  In  the  first 
of  the  following  ex j.u!i/.es,  it  is  a  propo.sition,  and  in  the  second,  a  conjunction. 
"He is  n.glectedjw?tof£A«an(ii»^lii8  merii."  "  Be  ia  tespaoted,  nctwith^tainddirg 
he  U  poor." 


COKSTRUCnVE    GRAMMAR.  1  I  ■-> 

SINCE. 

Since,  in  tbo  first  of  iho  following  examples,  is  a  conjunction;  in  the  Focond,  n 
preposition ;  and  in  the  third,  an  adverb.  "  1  will  go,  since  you  dtsiro  it."  "  lie 
has  been  employed  since  that  time."    "  Our  friendship  commenced  long  xincr." 

WHAT. 

What  isu.'P'lns  a  substitute  (relative)  ;  as.  "Tie  knows   what  ho  eald."     As  .n 
specifying  adjective  ;  as,  "  What  man  is  that  ?"    It  is  used  as  an  adverb;  as,  "  What 
(partly)  by  entreaty,  and  what  by  threatening,  he  succeeded.     In  the  following  sui 
tence,  it  is  used  as  an  interjection  :  "What!  could  ye  not  watch  one  hour  ?"  (Soo 
Construction  of  What.    Part  I.) 


EXPLANATION  OF  FRENCH   WORDS    AND  PHRASES  OF 
FREQUENT    OCCURRENCE. 

"  The  followin::;  French  words  and  phrases  are  oft6T\  rnet 
with  in  English  -wTitcrs.  They  are  here  explained  for  the  bene- 
fit of  those  unacquainted  with  the  French  language.  Inthe 
following  representation  of  French  sounds,  i  h;t3  the  sound  of 
a  in  hat ;  a  of  a  \\\*lade  ;  a  of  a  m  falls  e  of  e  in  her  ;  e  of  « 
in  bed  ;  i  of  z  in  sit  ;  8  of  o  in  hot;  o  of  o  in  lone  ;  u  of  w  in 
cure;  oo  of  oo  in  coo.  The  French  u,  and  eu,  and  oeu,  have 
no  corresponding  sounds  in  the  English  language,  nor  can  thej. 
he  represented  by  letters  ;  the  first  is  intermediate  between  o 
and  u,  and  is  pronounced  with  the  lips  nearly  closed  (the  up- 
per projecting),  leaving  only  a  small  hole  in  the  middle,  as  if  to 
blow  a  flute  ;  this  sound  is  here  represented  by  u  ;  eu  and  oeu 
are  more  full  and  open  than  u  ;  they  are  here  represented  by  u  ; 
r  is  sounded  hard  lilvorr.  The  nasal  vowels  an,  in,  on,  U7i,  can- 
not be  represented  by  letters.  The  articulation  of  the  w  must 
end  when  the  tip  of  the  tongue  is  at  the  root  of  the  lower 
teeth,  without  any  motion  towards  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  The 
English  syllables  a7iy,  aing,  ong,  ung,  though  not  correct,  arc 
still  the  nearest  representation  of  the  sound  that  can  be  made 
to  the  eye.  Indeed,  it  is  impossible  by  means  of  letters  to  rep- 
resent the  correct  pronunciation  of  most  French  words.  This 
can  be  done  only  to  the  ear."  The  following,  therefore,  is 
to  be  regarded  only  as  the  nearest  that  can  be  given. — {See 
Bullion's  Grammar.) 

Aide-de-camp  (aid-de-kang),  an  assistant  to  a  general. 

A  la  bonne  heure  (ri  13,  bonn  urr),  at  an  early  hour  ;  in  the  nick 

of  time. 
Affaire  de  coeur,  (alfair  d<?  kurr),  a  love  aflair  ;  an  amour. 

2^ 


214  ANALYTICAL,    ILLe81«ATIVB,  AND 

A  la  mode  (S  IS,  mSd),  according  to  the  fashion. 

Aliens  (allbng),  come,  let  us  go. 

Apropos  (S^-prS-po),  to  the  purpose ;  opportunely. 

Au  fait  (o  fay),  well  acquainted  with ;  thoroughly  versed  in: 

Au  fond  (6  fBng),  to  the  bottom,  or  main  point. 

Auto-da-fe  (o-to-d^-fS) — Portugese — burning  of  heretics. 

Bagatelle  (bagatell),  a  trifle. 

Beau  monde  (bo  mongd),  the  gay  world;  people  of  fashion. 

Beaux  esprits  (boz  espree)  men  of  wit. 

Billet  doux  (bee-ye  doo),  a  love  letter. 

Bon  mot  (bong  mo),  a  piece  of  wit ;  a  jest ;  a  quibble. 

Bon  ton  (bong  tong),  in  high  fashion. 

Bon  gr^,  mal  gre  (bong  gr4,  mal  gr4),  with  a  good  or  ill  grace; 
whether  the  party  will  or  not.  * 

Bon  jour  (bong  zhoor),  good  day. 

B^doir  (boo-d5-ar),  a  small  aj^artment. 

Canaille  (cS-nS-ye),  lowest  of  the  people  ;  rabble ;  mob. 

Carte  blanche  (kart  blangsh),  a  blank   sheet  of  paper  ;  uncon- 
ditional term. 

Chateau  (shS,-to),  a  country  seat. 

Chef  d'oeuvre  (she  duvr),  a  master-piece. 
■  Ci  devant  (see  devang),  formerly. 

Comme  il  faut  (kom  il  fo),  as  it  should  be. 

Con  amore  (kon  ^mora) — Italian — with  love ;  gladly. 

Coup  de  grdce  (koo  de  gr^ss),  a  stroke  of  m«rcy  ;  the  finishing 
stroke. 

Coup  de  main  (koo  de  maing),  a  sudden  or  bold  enterprise. 

Coup  d'oeil  (koo  du-ee-ye),  a  quick  glance  of  the  ey©. 

D'ailleurs  (da-yurr),  moreover  ;  besides. 

Debut  (da-bu)  the  beginning  ;  the  lead ;  first  appearance. 

Dernier  ressort  (dern-ya  ressorr),  the  last  shift  or  resource. 

Depot  (da-po),  a  store  or  magazine. 

Double  entendre,  or  double  entente  (dooble  ang-tangdr),  double 
meaning. 

Douceur  (doos-surr),  a  present  or  bribe. 

Dieu  et  mon  droit  (deeu  a  mong  droah),  God  and  my  right. 

Eclat  (a-clS),  splendid. 

El  eve  (a-lSv),  a  pupil. 

Elite  (a-leet),  choice  ;  prime ;  of  the  better  sort. 

Embonpoint  (ang-bong-pS-aing),  in  good  condition  ;  jolly. 

En  flute  (Sng  flute),  carrying  guns  on  the  upper  deck  only. 

En  masse  (4ng  mass),  in  a  body  or  mass. 

En  passant  (ang  passang),  by  the  way  ;  in  passing. 

Ennui  (ang-nu-ee),  wearisomeneBs. 

Entree  (ing-tra)  ^ntwrnc*. 


©ONSTRUCTIVE   6tAMM\R. 


i'15 


Faux  pas  (fo  pS,),  a  slip  ;  misconduct. 

Fete  (fayte),  a  feast  or  entertainment. 

Honi  soit  qui  raal  y  pense  (ho-nec  soah  kee  mal  ee  pangee),  evil 

be  to  liim  that  evil  thinks. 
Hauteur  (ho-turr),  haughtiness. 
Je  ne  sais  qui  (zhe  ne  say  koah),  €  know  not  what. 
Jeu  de  mOts  (zlm  de  mo),  a  play  upon  words. 
Jen  d'esprit  (zhue  despree),  a  display  of  wit ;  witticism. 
Mal  apropos  (mSl  S,-pr5-po),  unfit;  unreasonable. 
Mauvaise  honte  (mo-vaze  hongt.)  unbecoming  bashfulness. 
Mot  du  guet  (mo  du  ga),  a  watch  word. 
N'importe  (naing  port),  it  matters  not. 
Nous  verrons  (noo  verrong),  we  shall  see. 
Outre  (oo-tra),  eccentric  ;  blustering  ;  not  gentle. 
Petit  maitre  (peti  maitr),  a  beau ;  a  fop. 
Pis  allcr  (pee  zalla),  a  last  resource. 
Protege  (prot-ta-zha),  a  person  patronized  and  protected. 
Recherche  (re-shair-sha),  rare  ;  scarce  ;  much  sought  after. 
Rouge  (roozhe),  red,  or  a  kind  of  red  paint  for  the  face. 
Sang  froid  (sang  fro-ah),  cold  blood  ;  indifference. 
Sans  x3ercmonie  (sang  seremonee),  without  ceremony. 
Savant  (sil- vang),  a  wise  or  learned  man. 
Soi-disant  (soah-deezang),  self-called  ;  pretended. 
Tant  raicux  (tS,ng  mee-u),  so  much  the  better. 
Tapis  (tH-pee),  the  carpet. 
Trait  (tray,)  feature  ;  touch ;  arras. 

Tete  a,  tete  (tate  3.  tate),  face  to  face ;  a  private  conversation. 
Tout  ensemble  (too  tang-sdngbl),  taken  as  a  whole ;  the  o-cneral 

appearance. 
Unique  (uneek),  singular. 

Valet-de-chambre  (vale-de-shangbr)  a  chamber  footman. 
Vive  le  roi  (veev  le  roah)  long  live  the  king. 


EXPLANATION  OF  LATIN  WORDS    AND  PHRASES 
OF  FREQUENT  OCCURRENCE. 


Ah  initio,  from  the  licjinniBg. 

Ai  urhe  condita,  from    the   building 

of  tke  city   (abbreviated  thus  :  A. 

U.   0.) 
Ad    captandum  vulgut„  to  ensnare 

the  vulgar. 


Ad  infinitum,  to  infinity. 

Ad  libitu7n,  at  pleasure. 

Ad  referendum,  fur  consideration. 

Ad  valorem,  accordiag  to  value. 

A  fortiori,  with  stronger  reason. 

Alias,  ttberwise. 


ANAI>YTIOAL    IXLUSTRATITE    AND 


Alihi,  elsewhere. 

Ahria  maiei\  university  benign  ras- 
tlu-r. 

Aiif/llce,  in  English. 

^Inuo  do/nml,  in  the  year  oiour 
Lord  A.  D. 

A/1710  viimdi,  in  the  year  of  tlie 
woiKl  A.  M. 

^1  pofteriorl,  from  the  latter. 

A  priori,  from  the  former,  from 
before,  or  from  the  cause. 

Arcanum,  a  secret. 

Arcana  imperii,  state  secrets. 

Arijtinientum  ad  Jwminem,  au  ap- 
peal to  the  practices  of  the  ad- 
versary. 


Durante piliacid,  during  pleasure. 

Ergo,  therefore. 

Errata,  errors — Erratum,  an  error. 

Esto  2)ef2>etua,  let  it  be  perpetual. 

Ex  cathedra,,  from  the  chair  with  au- 
thority. 

Excerjyia,  extracts. 

Efcmpli  gratia,  as  for  exaoiple,  con- 
tracted c.  fj. 

Ex  otfiaio  ofQcially,  by  virtue  of  office. 

Ex  parte,  on  one  side. 

Ex  tempore,  without  prerneditation. 

Fac  simile,  exact  copy  or  resem- 
blance. 

Fiat,  let  it  be  done  or  made. 

Flagrante  hello,  during  hostilities. 


Arpu7ne>il.inn  ad  judicium,  an    ap- 


Gratis,  for  nothing. 
Ilora  fiigit,  the  hour,  or  time  flics. 
0,  au    *l''\j{y,jnanun  gfii  t^frcn-e,  to  err  is  human, 
poal   to    the    common   sense    pf  j^.^-j^^jn  the  same  place 


inankind 

Arpnii'mdum  ad  fidem,  an  appeal 
to  our  taitb. 

Anjnmentum  ad  populum,  an  ap- 
peal to  the  people. 

Arg^imeutum  ad  pasiiones,  an  ap- 
peal to  the  passions. 

Audi  alteram  partem,  hear  both 
sides. 

Bona  fide,  in  good  faith,  in  reality. 

Contra,  against. 

Cacoethcs  scribendi,  an  itch  for  wri 
ting. 

C<r,'<'/-2>7>i7r;"&;<5,other  circumstaBces 
l)eing  equal. 

Caput  vLoriutim,  the  worthless  re- 
mains, dead  head. 

Compjos  mentis,  in  one's  senses. 

Cum  privilegio,  with  privileges. 

Data,  things  granted. 

De  facto,  from  the  fact,  in  reality. 

De  jure,  from  the  law,  justly. 

Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace  or  favoi 
of  God 

Deo  volcnte,  God  willing  (D.  Y.) 


Idem,  the  same. 

Id  est,  that  i?,  contracted  i.  e. 

Ignoramus,  an    ignorant    fellow,   a 

dunce. 
In  loco,  in  this  place. 
In  primis,  in  the  first  place. 
In  terrorem,  as  a  warning. 
In  propria  persona,    in    his   own 

person. 

In  statu  quo,  in  the  former  state. 
Inst.,  for  instant,  the  present. 
Ipse  dixit,  on  his  sole  assertion. 
Ipso  facto,  by  the  fact  itself. 
Ijjso  jure,  by  the  law  itself. 
Item,  also,  article. 
Jure  divine,  by  dirine  right. 
Jure  liumano,  by  human  law. 
Jus  gentium,  the  law  of  nations. 
Locum  tenens,  deputy,  substitute. 
Labor  omnia  v/ncif,  labor  oveicome3 

'everything. 
Licentia  rahim,  a   poetical   license. 
Linguce-  lapsus,  a  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Magna   churta,  the   great  charter, 

tiie  basis  of  our  laws  and  liberties. 


Desunt  cetera,  the^rest  are  wanting.|j/-g^enio  inori,  remember  death. 
Desideratum,  something   desirable.  Memorabilia,  matters  deserving  of 

a  thing  wanted.  i     record. 

Dramatis  p)?rsoii()e.,  characters  rc^-  Memorandum,  a  thing   to    be   re- 

resentec!.  ^  •         I     mcmbcred.      • 

Ihirante  vita,  during  life.  ^Meum  et  luum,  mine  and  thine. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    OBAlirMAR. 


217 


Multuvi  in  2}arvOf  much  in  little,  a 

great  deal  in  a  few  words. 
Muialis   mutandis,   the    necessary 

changes  being  made. 
Miitaio   nomine,   the   name   being 

changed. 
HFetiio  h^  imjmne  lacesset,    no  one 

shall  provoke  me  with,  impunity. 
lie 2)h(S  nlira,  no   farther,   nothing 

beyond.  ' 

j\'^olc)is  volens,  willing  or  unwilling. 
J\'on  cojnpos  mentis^  not  of  a  sound 

mind. 
JVc  quid  nimis,  too    much   of  one 

thing  is  good  for  nothing. 
jyisi   dominus  frusira,    unless  the 

Lord  be  with  us  all  efforts  are  in 

vain. 
J}«em:eo7i.  {{ot nemine  contra  dicente,) 

non«  opposing. 
Kern.  J  is.  (for  nemine  dissetitiente), 

none  disagreeing. 
Omnibus,  for  all,  a  public  conveyance. 
Ore  terms,  from  the  mouth. 
0  temporm,  0  mores,  0  the  times,  0 

the  manners. 
Omncs,  all. 
Onus,  burden. 
Passim,  everywhere. 
Fer  se,  by  itself,  alone. 
Possi  co'milatus,    the  powtr  of  the 

countr}'. 
Prima  faeic,  at  first  view  tr  at  first 

sight, 
Primum  mobile,  the  main  spring. 
Fro  and  con,  for  and  aganist. 
Pro  bono  publico,  for  the  good  of  th« 

public. 
Pro  loc4  et  tempore,  for  the  place  and 

time. 
Pro  re  natu,  for  a  special  businesf . 
Pro  rege,  lege,  et  grtge,  for  the  king, 

the  cor»litution,  and  the  people. 
,_,       ijr.lmo,  with  what  mi«d. 
^({<;  jure,  by  v.'bat  right. 
Quoad,  ns  far  as. 
(Jvonddin,  foimcrly,  former. 
Ixts  publica,  the  commonwealth. 
Pesvrgam,  I  shall  rise  again. 
Pex,  a  king  ;  Regina,  a  queen. 
Senatvs  eonsult?ini,  a  decree  of  sen- 
ate, (S.  C.) 
Seriatim,  in  regular  order. 


Sine  die,  without  specifying  any  par- 
ticular day. 
Sine  quanoii,  and  indispensable  pre- 
requisite or  condition. 
Statu  quo,  the  state  in  which  it  was. 
Sub  pmna,  under  a  penalty. 
Sui  generis,   of  its  own   kind,  i.  e.,  , 

singular. 
Supra,  above, 

Sutnmum  ionum,  the  chief  good. 
Tria  juncta  in  uiw,  three  joined  in 

one. 
Toties  qutties,  as  often  as. 
Una  voce,  with    one    voice,    unani- 
mously. 
Ultimus,  the  last  (contr,  ult.) 
Utih  dulci,  the  useful  with  the  pleas- 
ant. 
Verbatim,  word  for  word. 
VernLS,  against. 
Vade  ilccum,  go  with  me  ;  a  book  fit 

for  being  a  constant  companion. 
Vale,  farewell. 
Via,  by  way  of. 
Vice,  in  the  room  of. 
Vice  versa,  the  reverce. 
Vide,  see  (contr,  v.) 
Vide  ut  supra,  see  as  above. 
Vis  poet ica,  poetic  genius. 
Viva  voce,  orally,  by  the  living  voice. 
Vox2)opuli,  the  voice  of  the  people. 
Vvlgo,  commonly. 

Vultvs  est  index  animi,  the  counte- 
nance is  the  index  of  the  mind. 
Vi)-i(f  regina,  long  live  the  queen. 
Vincct  amor  patriw,  the  love  of  our 
country  is  the  predominant  feeling. 
Sua  cuiqu*  volujttas,  erpry  one  has 

his  own  pleasures. 
Sic  transit  gUria  mundi,  thus  passes 

away  the  glory  of  the  world. 
Rtspictjinem,  look  to  the  end. 
Ecqaiescat  in  pace,  may   ke  rest  in 

peace ! 
Quid  nunc,  what  now  ?  applied  to  a 

ncwi  hunter. 
Quantum    mutatus    ab     illo,    how 

changed  from  what  he  once  was  ! 
Principiit  obsta,  oppose  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  evil. 
Poeta  nascitur,   nonft,  nature,  and 

not  study,  must  form  a  poet. 
Peccavi,  I  hare  sinned. 
0  !  si  sic  omnia,  0  !    that  he  had  al- 
ways done,  or  spoken  thus. 


•2  is 


A.N'ALYTirAL,    ILLUSTRATIVE     AND 


Noscitur  a  sooiis,  he  is  known  by  his 
companions. 

T^on  omnia  2'>os^ivmvH  dmues,  we  can- 
not all  of  us  do  erf^rv  thin^. 

Ne  sulor  ■itlt.ra  crejjidain,  let  not  the 
shoemaker  go  beyond  hi-J  last,  ( r 
meddle  with  what  lie  dues  not  un- 
derstand. 

Nemo  morinlium  omnlhus  horths'ipit 
no  one.  is  wise  at  all  time-;. 

Ifedio  tutissimus  ■ibh,  good  will  act 
wise  by  iiteering  a  middle  course. 


Ignis  fatuus,  the  meteor,  or  electri- 
cal phenomenon  called  "  will-o'-the- 
wisp." 

Fiat  jicstitia,  mat  ccelum,  let  justice 
be  done,  though  the  heavens  fall. 

De  mortuis  nil  nisi  honum,  let  noth- 

■  ing  be  said  of  the  dead  but  what  is 
favoral^le. 

Domine,  durige,  0  Lord^direct  us ! 

Fas  est  et  ah  haste  doceri,  it  is  allow- 
able to  derive  instruction  even  from 
an  enemy. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.  B.  or  I>.  A.  Artimu  Baccalareus,  bach- 
elor of  ar'^ 
A'lj.  Av.}  riive. 
AJv.  A(!voiU 
Abp.  Archbi.'^hop. 
Acct    Account. 

A.  C.  J/Ue  Christum,  before  Christ. 
A.  1).  A»7to  Domini,  year  of  our  Lord. 
AJni.  Administrator. 
Aduix.  Administratrix. 


jE.  g.  Exempli  gratia,  for  example. 
jEph.  Ephesians. 
iEsq.  E.oquire. 

Etc.  Et  cetera,  and  so  forth. 
lEx.   Exodus. 
jExr.  Exi'cutor. 

Feb.  FebroJirj. 
iPig.  Figure. 
;Fol.  Folio. 

Pr.  French. 


A  M.  Ante  meridiem,  before   noon;  or,F.  U.S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
anno  viiindi,  yoar  of  the  world  ;  or  ar-[Gal.  Gallatians. 


tium  nmgister,  master  of  arts. 
Anou.  Aii"i)ymi)us. 
Apr.  April. 
A.  U.  C.  Anno  urbis  conditoe,  the    year  of|Geo.  George. 

the  buililing  of  tKi.'  city  (Rome  )  jGov.  Governor 


Gall.  Gallon. 

Gen.  Genesis ;  general. 

Gent.  Gentleman. 


Aug.    AUfTUrt, 

]{1.   Barrel. 

B.  c.  Ji  '■>-?■  n>  ht. 

B.  I>    H   jl-lor  of  divinity. 
Be'  i    ''■ '  iiii'Mii. 

Bp.'l!'':!'   -'■ 

Caijt.  I  .,"  ..  1- 

Chas.  t  1     1.=. 

G.  or  ccii*.    Munlrcd. 

Chron.«Clir:nic'e« 

Co.  Company  ;  couuly. 

Col.    Cl.loDPl. 

Coll.  Colli--'. 

Cor.   Coriuilii'.r.s. 

Cr.  Credit,  '.r  creditor. 

Cwt.  Ilun-^.-ol  wirigbt. 

D.  (de.)  Dei:ur(U.-<,  penny. 

D.  D.  Du.t.ir  of  uirinity. 
Dec.  Dfceiii^er. 

Deg.  Degri'o. 
Dup.  Deputy. 
Deut.  Deuttrono'vy. 
Do.  or  ditto.  The  same. 
Doz.  Dozen. 
Doct.  Doctor. 
Dwt.  Pennyweight. 

E.  East. 

Ecel.  Eoclosiasles. 
Ed.  Ediior. 


jHeb.  Hebrews. 
IHhd.  Hogshead. 

H.  M.   His  or  Her  Majesty. 

H.  B.  .M.  His  or  Her  Britannic   Majesty. 
I  Hon.   Honorable. 
iHund.  Hundred. 

lb,  Ibid,  or  Ibidem.  In  the  same  place. 

Id,  Idem.  The  same. 

I.  e.  Id  est,  that  is. 

Incog.  Incognito,  unknown. 

Inst.  Instant,  present,  of  this  month. 

[j^a.  Isaiah. 

Jan.  January. 

Jaa.  James. 

.Tosh-  Joshua. 

Jan.  or  Jr.  Junior. 

Kt.  Kaiffht 

Lam.  Lamentations. 

Lat.   Latitude.  .„    . 

Lev.  Leviticus.  ■  ^^^i.^.' 

Lieut.  Lieutenant. 

LL.   B.   Ligum  Baccalaurens,   Bachelor 
of  Laws. 

LL.  D.  Legum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

Long.  Longitude. 

L.  S.  Lozus  Sigilli,  the  place   of  the  seal. 

M.  Mille,  a  thousand. 

M.  A.  Master  of  Arts. 

Maj.  Major. 


CO  NSTRU  CTI V  r.     r,  R  A  %J  M  A  K . 


219 


Mar.  Marrh. 

Matt.  Matthew. 

M.  B.  MedicitKB   Baccalaureut,  Bachelor 

of  Medicine. 
M.  D.  MedicitKB  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Medi- 
■     cine. 

Messrs.  Messieurs. 
M.  P.  Member  of  Parliament. 
Mr.  Mister. 
Mrs.   Mistress. 
M.  S.  Manuscript. 
N.    North. 

N.  B.  Nota  Benr.,  notice  well. 
N.  K.    Northeast. 
Nem.  Con.  Neniiue  Contradicerde,  no  one 

opposing. 
No.  Number. 
Nov.  November. 
N.  P.  New  .style. 
N.  T.  New  Testament. 
Num.  Numbers. 
N.  W.  Northwest. 
Obt.  Obedient. 
Oct.  October. 

0.  S.  Old  style.  » 

Oxon.  Oxonia,  Oxford. 
Per  cent.  Pa-  centum,  by  the  hundred. 
Pet.  Peter. 
PI.  Plural. 

P    V.  Post  Merediem,  after  noon. 
P.  M.   Post  Master. 
P.  0.  Post  Office. 
Prob.    Problem. 
Prof.  Professor. 
Prop.  Proposition. 
P.  S.  Poet  Scriptum,  postscript. 
Ps.    Psalms. 
Q.  or  Qu.  Question. 


Q.  E.  I).  Quod  rrat  demonstrandum, 
which  was  to  he  demnnstratoil. 

Q.  V.    Quad  vide,  which  see. 

Qr.    Quarter. 

Qt.    Quart. 

Rev.   Reverend  ;  Rpvelation. 

R.  N.   Royal  navy. 

Hobt.  Robert 

Rt.  Ri.sht  honorable. 

S.   South. 

Sec.  Secret.? ry. 

.^.  E.  .Soiithenst. 

Sen.  Sinior. 

■"^ppt.  Scp'embor. 

Sq.  Square. 

St.  Sair.t  :  Street. 

S.  T.  P.  Su'Ctfc  IheoiogiUt  doctor,  doctor 
of  theology  or  divinity. 

S.  W.   Soutbwe.Ht. 

Thess.  Thf.'saloni.ins. 

Thos.  ThuiTias. 

Tr.  Translator  ;  Trensuror. 

Ult.    Vlthno 

U.  S.  United  Stnte.s. 

V  or  Vid.   Vide,  see. 

Viz.   Videlicet,  to  wit,  namely. 

Vol.  Volume. 

Vols.  Volumes 

Vs.   Versii.<  against. 

W.  West. 

W.  I.  We.«t  Indies. 

Wk    Week. 

AVm.  Wini;(m. 

Yd.  Yard. 

Yds.   Yards. 

4to,   Quarto. 

8vo.    Oetavo. 

l2mo.   Duodecimo. 

I8mo.  Octodecimo. 


»  •••  r 


